The NNR2023 Committee commissioned five background reviews on sustainability issues related to food consumption. Four of these papers review environmental aspects of food consumption, both in relation to global and local impact of Nordic and Baltic food consumption.
These papers represent the main foundation for integrating environmental sustainability in science advice for DRVs and FBDGs. The last sustainability review deals with socioeconomic aspects of sustainability. This paper is a Nordic and Baltic summary of the SAPEA report that was commissioned by the European Commission. While the socioeconomic aspects for sustainability were not requested to be integrated by the Nordic Council of Ministers, the NNR2023 Committee have included this review as a general background that may be used by the national health and food authorities when they formulate and implement their national recommendations and guidelines.
To integrate environmental sustainability, the NNR2023 Committee has in large followed the guiding principles from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and WHO (FAO/WHO, 2019). Initially, the committee scrutinized recent developments of the health effects of nutrients, foods and dietary patterns. Then, the environmental impact of food consumption, and the corresponding food systems were examined, and the ranges and limits of the healthy FBDGs were considered to encompass both health and environmental goals.
Assessing the environmental sustainability of diets – a global overview of approaches and identification of 5 key considerations for comprehensive assessments
Sustainability is a complex concept that includes environmental, health, as well as economic and social dimensions. The remit of the paper by Benton et al. (2022) was to focus on the environmental dimension of sustainability. The paper focuses on global considerations and hence does not consider the local context in Nordic and Baltic countries. The review was developed as a collaboration between the NNR2023 project, Chatham House and an appointed reference group consisting of Nordic and Baltic scientists. The Nordic and Baltic scientists have given significant scientific input, while the members of the NNR Committee have ascertained that the relevance is within the scope of the NNR project.
Assessing the environmental impacts of food, food systems and diets is complex due to the multitude of processes involved, the uncertainty in assessment models, the variability in production systems and the large range of products available. No single assessment method can therefore provide a complete evidence base. However, the increasing number of LCA and food system approach studies, and the relation to integration of planetary boundaries, offers sufficiently precise estimates from which we can draw some robust conclusions, while recognising there is a need for more detailed analyses to capture the inherent nuances of more location and context specific situations.
Despite the complexity of assessing the environmental sustainability of food, diets and food systems, there are a number of key considerations that can be identified and used in the NNR2023 report, and in doing so help to increase utility of the outcomes and limit unintended adverse consequences. Benton et al. (2022) formulated 5 key considerations (the thresholds, the system, the variables, the context and the spill-over) that may be applied when integrating environmental sustainability into FBDGs in the Nordic and Baltic countries.
Overview of food consumption and environmental sustainability considerations in the Nordic and Baltic region
The paper, which was developed in collaboration with Chatham House, examines environmental impacts related to current food production and consumption using a global and Nordic perspective and discusses the implications across the 8 Nordic and Baltic countries (Harwatt et al., 2023). The aspects are discussed as an overview of each food group within the NNR2023. The content was largely drawn from scientific literature such as major reports, studies, and systematic reviews. The assessment was done partly as an expert elicitation to ensure that the rich body of existing data on the environmental impacts of foods and diets could be best interpreted within the context of the Nordic region. In the paper, data were used from different sources, all based on food availability data of FAOSTAT, and combined with a comprehensive database of environmental footprints, differentiated by country, food group, and environmental impacts. Also, global footprint data are shown.
The paper provides suggestions for overall and food group specific changes in consumption and presents opportunities for food production. Estimates from the studies show that the environmental impacts of current diets in each of the Nordic countries mostly exceed the levels that would be required to stay within the planetary boundaries related to GHG emissions, cropland use, water use, nitrogen use and phosphorus use. Estimates show that shifting to the current national Nordic and Baltic FBDGs would mostly improve the outcomes, but not enough. The estimates presented in the paper indicate that meat and dairy contribute the most to GHG emissions and crop land use. Food waste, a challenge that applies to all food groups, is not covered in this paper (see Trolle et al., 2023).
Given that biodiversity impacts are generally related to agricultural practices but not GHG emission it is important to note that foods associated with low or high GHG emission may have varying impact on biodiversity. As a result, when shifting to food production systems that may lower GHG emission potential consequences for biodiversity and other environmental impact should also be assessed in parallel.
The overarching recommendation for all countries from the background paper (Harwatt et al., 2023) is to shift to more plant-based dietary patterns. The extent to which this is necessary depends on the current consumption patterns. Priority interventions suggested in the background paper are:
Reduce meat and dairy consumption and increase the consumption of legumes/pulses, whole grain, vegetable and fruit, vegetable oils, and nuts and seeds. The substitution process is somewhat dependent on current consumption patterns and potential to shift and should ensure nutritional adequacy and positive health impact at the dietary level.
Explore potential shifts to sources of fish and seafood from sustainably managed stocks. Due to the potentially large-scale impacts on ecosystems, a precautionary approach to the fish group is essential – particularly in relation to an increase in consumption.
Support a reduction in consumption of animal-source food and increase in provision of plant-based foods through feed-to-food shifts. This is relevant for cereals and pulses, as well as nuts, vegetables, and fruits. In the context where consumption of fruits and vegetables must increase, shifting production methods could help to further reduce environmental impacts (particularly water, pesticide, and fertilizer use). Fruits and vegetables that require less resources to produce could be prioritized in alignment with the requirements of a healthy diet
The scientific literature suggests that organic cultivation methods result in greater biodiversity benefits compared to non-organic production. At the global level, it is only possible to convert agricultural production to organic methods in conjunction with substantial shifts in demand for plant-based diets.
National strategies to facilitate changes of food consumption and production may benefit from considerations of the complexity of trade-offs and location specific impacts and contexts, including implications for trade, human health and social impacts, animal welfare, and current and emerging threats e.g., antibiotics and zoonotic-driven pandemics and potential changes in environmental conditions.
National land use assessment could inform optimal land uses for meeting a range of environmental goals, also accounting for the environmental impacts of food imports in producer countries.
While urgent and fundamental changes to food production and consumption are required to help meet climate change and biodiversity goals, tackling such issues does not remove the need for urgent reform in other sectors, including energy. Instead, transformation of food systems must be incorporated as one part of a comprehensive ‘green transition’ plan that includes all systems.
Integrating environmental sustainability into Food-Based Dietary Guidelines in Nordic countries
The background paper provides knowledge for science-based advice for developing Food-Based Dietary Guidelines (FBDGs) that include environmental sustainability within the Nordic and Baltic countries (Trolle et al., 2023). It gives an overview of the recent studies in the Nordics on the environmental impact, including climate and other environmental impacts of foods and dietary patterns, and on the development of FBDGs from the viewpoint of sustainability. Finally, approaches for developing national sustainable FBDGs in the Nordic and Baltic countries are suggested. The paper is a scoping review, based on literature searches regarding Nordic and Baltic studies on sustainability of diets and foods. The paper provides a concise introduction to environmental impact data, with a specific focus on Nordic data in relation to the variation in data within a food group at the global level.
According to the background paper, the Nordic studies conclude that animal-based foods are the largest contributors to dietary GHG emissions and land use in current diets. Modelling, optimization, and intervention studies confirm the potential to reduce negative environmental impacts, like GHG emissions, but also to improve positive impacts e.g., on biodiversity, by shifting towards a predominantly plant-based diet that is both nutritionally balanced and supported by evidence regarding the health-based recommended amount of specific food groups. A sole focus of reducing climate impact may result in nutritionally inadequate diets and may not decrease the biodiversity loss. Similarly, a healthy diet may have large environmental impacts. Thus, health and environmental impact of diets are considered simultaneously. Healthy environmentally sustainable plant-based diets can be characterized as high in a variety of vegetables, fruits and berries, cereal products as mainly whole grain products, vegetable oils, legumes (pulses), and nuts and seeds. Plant-based diets also contain animal-protein sources such as fish from sustainably managed stocks, limited to moderate amounts of low-fat dairy and eggs, and a limited amount of meat, particularly limited in ruminant and processed meats. In addition, the content of discretionary food and drinks, (e.g., sugar-sweetened beverages and alcoholic beverages) should be limited. Food group-specific considerations are essential to simultaneously reduce the environmental impacts and achieve nutritional adequacy. These considerations may include e.g., favouring more robust types of vegetables that store well and within the limited amount of beef and other ruminant meat, favouring meat products from dairy herds and grazing animals if needed to keep landscape open. However, meat from grazing animals should otherwise be limited. Further, food waste is to be decreased or avoided, as well as overconsumption, e.g., excessive consumption. Dominantly or fully plant-based diets, as vegan diet, require solutions beyond dietary guidelines in terms of food fortification and dietary supplementation to ensure nutritional adequacy.
The current FBDGs in the Nordic countries are also described in the paper. They vary in the degree of including environmental sustainability, and there is a need for further development of the country specific sustainable FBDGs. The paper suggests using standardized approaches for developing sustainable FBDGs by the national authorities. The approach should secure nutritional adequacy and health-based evidence regarding food intake and dietary patterns at the population level as boundaries for integrating the different aspects of sustainable development into the FBDGs. The scientific basis should be built by involving experts in the fields of food, nutrition, health promotion, and environmental sustainability. When relevant, insights from food system stakeholders should be included. The paper suggests different approaches for integrating health, nutritional adequacy, and environmental sustainability by national authorities. The transition to sustainable diets must be made affordable and acceptable for consumers. In the Nordic countries, cultural and sociodemographic differences in dietary composition pose challenges in defining and implementing national FBDGs. Since the transition is urgent, monitoring and evaluation should go hand in hand with public-private partnership initiatives, campaigns, and development and piloting of case-studies to facilitate the transition at consumer level and to involve all food system actors. Examples are presented in the summary of the SAPEA report (Jackson & Holm, 2023).
The background paper concludes that it is possible to develop FBDGs that support the transition to healthier and more environmentally sustainable diets in the Nordic countries. Failing to reduce environmental impacts predisposes the population to another kind of public health threat: the environmental crisis.
Moving food consumption toward sustainable diets in the Nordics: Challenges and opportunities
The overall aim of this background paper is to provide information to be used for science advice for setting sustainable Food Based Dietary Guidelines (FBGDs) in the Nordics (Meltzer et al., 2023). Important challenges and opportunities with current Nordic food systems were identified, summarized, and discussed based on literature reviews and the assessments of Nordic food systems experts. Applying FAO/WHO’s guiding principles for healthy, sustainable diets (FAO/WHO, 2019), the paper evaluated how the Nordic countries are doing on environmental impact (principle #9 - #13) and sociocultural aspects (#14 - #16). In addition, the paper includes reflections at the food system level, including food security, self-sufficiency and resilience issues.
Historically, the geographical location of the five Nordic countries has determined the characteristics of food production in each country – mirrored in local food heritage. A substantial part of Nordic land is above the Arctic Circle, limiting the growth season and choice of crops. Forests dominate large parts of Nordic lowlands. Iceland and Norway have large patches of mountainous terrains unfit for crop cultivation, yet have large coastal regions suitable for extensive fishing and aquaculture. At high latitudes farming is dominated by dairy and meat production, including cattle, sheep, goats and reindeer. Together with Denmark, the southern parts of Norway, Finland and Sweden are more suitable for growing plant foods such as cereals, oilseeds, legumes and vegetables. Denmark, Finland and Sweden are net exporters of cereal grain.
Although the Nordics score high in overall global assessments like the Sustainable Development Indexes, there is a long way to go to reach net zero emissions and implement thoroughly sustainable practices within food production and consumption (Sachs et al., 2022). Furthermore, when the total global effects of the Nordic consumption are assessed, the countries are not top performers. Thus, for optimizing the total sustainability of Nordic diets, the global food system must be considered (Kinnunen et al., 2020).
According to the background paper, some challenges are unavoidable. Parts of the Nordics are best or only suited for grass production and pastures, utilization of resources resulting in significant methane emissions from ruminant meat and dairy production. In addition, fractions of the crops may be best suited for animal feed due to marginal conditions for grain production. Thus, utilisation of resources needs careful balancing between ensuring local production that can balance demand for dairy and meat on the one hand, but without resulting in a large environmental footprint domestically as well as the indirect impact from import of feed for food production. Production must also conform to net zero climate emissions and limitations on nitrogen and phosphorus spill-over. The issues connected with biodiversity, domestically and directly from import of feed, must also be adequately resolved.
A sustainable food system for the European Union. The SAPEA report – a summary with focus on the Nordic and Baltic countries
This review seeks to outline some of social and economic dimensions of sustainability, based on evidence available in the peer-reviewed literature. The review relies on a recent Evidence Review Report undertaken by an expert group of academics, convened under the auspices of SAPEA (Scientific Advice for Policy by European Academies). The SAPEA report provides an independent review of the evidence required to inform the transition to a more just and sustainable food system for the EU, including the identification of ‘good practice’ examples, some of which are drawn from the Nordic and Baltic countries. The SAPEA report concluded that fundamental, system-wide changes were required to promote the transition towards a fairer, more sustainable and healthier food system. Environmental, health and socio-economic issues are thoroughly interconnected and do not exist in separate silos. Meeting the growing global demand for food will require significant dietary change as well as large reductions in food waste, as technological change or yield increases are unlikely to meet demand alone. Evidence of ‘what works’ in policy terms requires strengthening, including further research on the public understanding of science and consumer acceptance of new technologies.
The SAPEA report identified a series of ‘good practice’ examples where there was strong peer-reviewed evidence of positive long-term impacts including health and sustainability benefits (Jackson & Holm, 2023). Examples included: state support for the growth of the Danish organic sector (Daugbjerg & Sønderskov, 2012); the RETHINK project in Latvia and Lithuania, an action-research programme which explored the structures and opportunities for small and medium-size agricultural holdings that are not well incorporated into the mainstream market (Šūmane et al., 2015); and the Danish Wholegrain Partnership, which achieved a significant increase in whole grain consumption through a process of multi-sector collaboration involving the Danish Veterinary and Food Administration, the food industry and health NGOs such as the Danish Cancer Society (WholEUGrain, 2021). The SAPEA report also noted a series of other initiatives.
As the foregoing discussion reveals, there are some ‘win-wins’ in the field of health and sustainability policy. However, difficult choices between competing policy options will occur, like those facing ordinary consumers in their everyday lives. Being clear about the way food is framed as an issue and how different framings shape policy outcomes is a useful way forward in addressing the inevitable trade-offs and compromises between competing objectives.