This chapter addresses, in line with the domain of the WHO maternal well-being framework on autonomy, agency and resilience, the importance and current state of supporting the transition to parenthood. This domain encompasses maternal and parental autonomy, the development of resilience and the promotion of agency, which refers to the ability to make informed choices and actively shape one’s adaptation to parenthood, including access to parenting education and skills (Le Lez et al., 2025 ).
The literature search revealed the factors shaping psychosocial well‑being during the transition to parenthood, focusing on fathers. In the literature search for this report, comparatively less research paid attention to the transition of mothers to parenthood, with more emphasis placed on risk factors, mental health outcomes and contextual influences than on mothers’ own transitional experiences. The experiences of sexual and gender minorities are addressed in the next chapter. This chapter also highlights the importance of resilience and psychological coping strategies during the perinatal period.
Transition to parenthood
The transition to parenthood is one of the most significant changes in life, affecting individuals on psychological and societal levels, and physically for the birthing parent. This transition can be stressful, often triggering family conflicts that harm relationships and threaten the psychological health of new parents (Xiao et al., 2021).
Social pressure can make the transition to motherhood challenging
A successful transition to motherhood in the early postnatal period depends on the timely identification and fulfilment of women’s needs. Negative feelings and pressures related to parenthood include unfulfilled role expectations and feelings of hopelessness associated with motherhood (Holopainen & Hakulinen, 2019; McCarthy et al., 2021). Negative body image and bodily changes after childbirth are commonly found to affect the mother’s psychosocial well-being. Both internal and external factors, such as media and cultural norms, play a role (Lee et al., 2023). Unrealistic social norms and expectations contribute significantly to perinatal anxiety and stress, especially when women’s experiences do not match societal ideals (McCarthy et al., 2021). Depressed mothers have reported feelings of negative body image and loss of self-due to changes in their former body (Holopainen & Hakulinen, 2019). Mothers have reported pressure to succeed in breastfeeding, with failure leading to feelings of inadequacy and guilt (Billings et al., 2024).
Fathers need support in their transition to fatherhood
The transition to fatherhood brings significant psychological and social changes, and fathers, just like mothers, may experience increased stress and vulnerability during the perinatal period (Ansari et al., 2021). First-time fathers often report fears related to lifestyle changes that parenthood brings. Becoming a father can give men a sense of fulfilling their role as ‘men’, accompanied by new priorities and responsibilities. While most welcome this change, many express concerns about being a ‘good father’ and doing things ‘right’ (Baldwin et al., 2018).
Fathers experience stress related to gender roles in parenting and contradictions between expectations and actual experiences of pregnancy and childbirth (Chhabra et al., 2020). Father’s stressors during the perinatal period include negative emotions about pregnancy, role limitations, feelings of incompetence and pressures to balance work and family life. Specific anxieties often centre on their partner’s labour and the infant’s well-being (Baldwin et al., 2018; Philpott et al., 2017; Shorey & Chan, 2020). Experienced fathers also report financial stress and concerns about treating children equally (Shorey & Chan, 2020). Stress peaks around childbirth and decreases in the postnatal period (Philpott et al., 2017).
During the postnatal phase, role strain and conflict are common stressors, as fathers struggle to balance responsibilities at home, work and in relationships, often leading to tension with partners and the extended family. Relationship quality often deteriorates, with fathers reporting neglect of the couple relationship and increased conflict during this period (Shorey & Chan, 2020). Expectations frequently fail to match reality, especially regarding breastfeeding and bonding, which are often more difficult than anticipated (Baldwin et al., 2018). Paternal postnatal mental health is important to maternal and perinatal healthcare (Suto et al., 2017). Many fathers feel uncertain and excluded during the perinatal period, struggling to find their role. They report feelings of inadequacy, fear, isolation and stress (Baldwin et al., 2018; Shorey & Chan, 2020).
These pressures contribute to increased stress, manifesting as tiredness, irritability and frustration (Baldwin et al., 2018). Elevated stress levels negatively affect fathers’ mental health, leading to anxiety, depression, psychological distress and fatigue (Philpott et al., 2017). Fathers suffering from depression have also reported feeling underestimated and undervalued as parents by their partners (Holopainen & Hakulinen, 2019).
In addition, fathers report a lack of support. Fathers frequently feel undervalued by health professionals and lack resources tailored to men. Peer and workplace support are limited, leaving many without adequate guidance during this critical life stage (Baldwin et al., 2018). Barriers to support increase feelings of exclusion, and fathers often lack knowledge about available help, feeling stigmatised if extra support is needed. At the same time, fathers want to be recognised as important providers of support (Venning et al., 2021).
To cope, fathers often resort to denial or escape behaviours such as smoking, working longer hours or listening to music (Baldwin et al., 2018). Others rely on open communication and teamwork with their partners, seek help from friends, family or healthcare professionals, or adopt indirect strategies such as distraction through work, lifestyle adjustments and acceptance of limitations (Shorey & Chan, 2020).
Despite these challenges, many fathers describe positive aspects of their new role. Bonding with their child is deeply rewarding, and those who embrace change and work collaboratively with their partners adjust more successfully to fatherhood (Baldwin et al., 2018). The co-parenting relationship plays a significant role in family outcomes during this period (Xiao et al., 2021). Good preparation for fatherhood, a good bond with the child and the capability to recognise and accept the life changes that come with fatherhood contribute positively to paternal well-being (Baldwin et al., 2018; Shorey & Chan, 2020).
Consistent guidance supports the whole family
Evidence from a qualitative systematic review by Walker et al. (2019) highlights that many maternity services fail to adequately meet women’s needs, particularly in areas such as postnatal health, newborn care, breastfeeding support and psychosocial well-being. When these needs remain unmet, women face increased risks of physical and emotional health challenges and reduced engagement in their own care.
Fathers have reported paternal participation and being included in parenting during pregnancy and after birth being a positive factor (Mprah et al., 2023; Suto et al., 2017). Fathers expressed a strong need for practical information on pregnancy, parenting skills and mental health through antenatal classes and small group discussions and highlighted the need for more preparation for fatherhood and support in managing relationship changes.
Suggested strategies included father-inclusive services, peer support groups and father-friendly resources. They also highlighted the importance of continued professional support after discharge and access to digital resources such as mobile health applications to receive timely guidance (Baldwin et al., 2018; Shorey & Chan, 2020). Further research and interventions are required to provide partners of pregnant women with evidence-based information and support whole families during the perinatal period (Suto et al., 2017).
Good care for new parents is based on continuity, cultural sensitivity and a family-centred approach. These factors increase feelings of security and reduce risks such as postpartum depression. Consistent and coherent guidance, especially in infant care and breastfeeding, as well as clear information on where to seek help strengthen parents’ confidence and well-being. Support from partners and loved ones, combined with empowering interaction with professionals, improves satisfaction and promotes a successful transition to parenthood (Walker et al., 2019; Wiklund et al., 2018).