6. Consumer acceptance and food product development

Consumer acceptance is a critical determinant of whether seaweed-based foods can move beyond niche markets and achieve broader uptake in Western diets. While earlier chapters have addressed nutrients (Chapter 2), food safety (Chapter 3), post-harvest processing (Chapter 4), and sensory quality (Chapter 5), successful market introduction ultimately depends on how consumers perceive, accept, and are willing to purchase and consume seaweed-containing products. Chapter 6 therefore focuses on consumer attitudes, preferences, and behavioural drivers related to seaweed as food, with particular emphasis on Western and Nordic contexts. Drawing on both international literature and empirical findings from the SusKelpFood project, the chapter examines current consumption patterns, hedonic responses, perceived barriers and drivers, and consumer segmentation to inform product development, communication strategies, and market positioning.

Western consumers and seaweeds

As opposed to Asian cultures, seaweeds have not been traditionally consumed in Europe. In Western societies, consumer acceptance of seaweed-based foods is shaped by perceived health and nutritional benefits, sensory qualities, ethical and environmental values, as well as prior familiarity (Birch et al. 2019; Govaerts and Olsen 2023; Onwezen et al. 2021) Major obstacles to a broader use of seaweeds in Western diets include limited consumer knowledge, low accessibility of seaweed-based foods, high prices, food neophobia and food safety concerns (Birch et al. 2019; Tenorio-Rodríguez et al. 2025; Young et al. 2022). Acceptance of seaweed-based foods tends to be higher among younger individuals, health-conscious and adventurous consumers, and is further associated with biospheric values (i.e., greater care for nature and the environment) (Birch et al. 2019; Govaerts and Olsen 2023) As discussed in the previous chapter, seaweeds possess intrinsic sensory properties that can be modulated through processing and can enhance the flavour, texture, and colour of the foods to which they are incorporated. The sensory appeal of seaweed-based products is identified as a driver for consumer acceptance of seaweeds as untraditional food items, potentially mitigating food neophobia (Embling et al. 2022).

Cultural adaptation

In Western countries, promoting seaweeds may require broad cultural interventions such as school-based food education, positive media framing, supermarket visibility, and integration into familiar food products (Pickering et al. 2025). Although adventurous consumers are often quicker to adopt new foods, consumer acceptance of seaweed must be understood within specific cultural contexts and priorities. For instance, survey data from Australian consumers emphasize the need for increased promotion (general advertisement, nutritional benefits), greater product diversity, and reduced single-use plastic packaging (Young et al. 2022), whereas a study of Mexican consumers stresses the importance of education, communication, and culinary integration strategies to support adoption (Tenorio-Rodríguez et al. 2025). Together, these insights underscore the need for tailored marketing and cultural adaptation strategies to expand seaweed adoption in Western markets, which are not homogeneous but shaped by distinct regional, national and local food cultures and preferences.

The present section summarizes recent findings from the SusKelpFood project, which investigated Norwegian consumer preferences and motivations regarding seaweed as food through surveys, focus group interviews, and product trials. The aim was to provide a deeper understanding of consumer perceptions and attitudes in a Nordic context, to identify and characterize homogenous consumer segments, and to assess both acceptance and willingness to pay for seaweed-based foods.

6.1. Seaweed consumption and hedonic liking of seaweed food among Norwegians

Seaweed consumption in Norway

As part of a large questionnaire addressing both general food-related factors (e.g. neophobia) and seaweed-specific aspects, the frequency of seaweed consumption among a representative sample of Norwegian consumers (n = 1,001) was recorded using a seven-point scale ranging from ”never” to ”very often” (Figure 12). A clear majority reported either never consuming seaweed (60%) or doing so only very seldom (10%). Only 10% indicated that they had consumed seaweed several times or more over the past six months. When sushi consumption was excluded, reported consumption declined slightly, suggesting that sushi is the primary context in which consumers encounter seaweed. Overall, seaweed remains a niche food product in Norway.

Figure 12: Frequency of seaweed consumption among Norwegian consumers (n = 1,001), based on survey data. The orange bars represent overall consumption, while the green bars show consumption excluding sushi. The average age of participants was 48.3 (range: 18–85), with a gender distribution of 49% men and 51% women. A majority (55.7%) reported having higher education (university or university college). The respondents were grouped across five regions of residence: Oslo (13.5%), Innlandet/Viken (30.9%), Agder/Sør-Østlandet (13.8%), Vestlandet (25.7%), Trøndelag/Northern Norway (16.2%).

Hedonic consumer response

In addition to the survey, product trials were conducted across three locations during six tasting events, involving a total of 238 participants. Alongside hedonic evaluations of two seaweed-containing food items (a fish soup and a Nordic kelp salad, both containing A. esculenta), participants were asked about their seaweed consumption frequency, willingness to consume seaweed-based products, and a range of attitudinal measures related to seaweed as food. Importantly, participants (recruited as passersby) were invited to take part in the product trials and were informed only that the dishes contained seaweed and relevant allergens (e.g., fish, gluten); the exact recipe was not disclosed. Consumer ratings of the fish soup with kelp were centred around the midpoint of the scale, with 31% of participants rating it 5 on the 1–9 hedonic scale (Figure 13), indicating a moderate level of liking. This may be partly explained by the fact that option 5 was preselected by default. Despite this, 46% of respondents rated the soup above the midpoint (scores 6 to 9), while only 22% rated it below (scores 1 to 4). This distribution suggests that the fish soup was perceived as moderately appealing, with relatively few respondents expressing strong positive or negative opinions. In contrast, the kelp salad received more favourable ratings (Figure 13). Although 26% of respondents gave it low scores (1 to 4), nearly two-thirds (64%) rated it at the higher end of the scale (6 to 9), indicating a generally positive reception. Overall, the comparison suggests that the kelp salad was better received than the fish soup, with a larger proportion of participants expressing a clear preference for the former.

Figure 13: Hedonic ratings of fish soup (n = 150) and kelp salad (n = 88), both containing Alaria esculenta, based on evaluations from Norwegian consumers. Tasting events were held in spring 2024 at three locations: Orkla Foods headquarters’ canteen in Oslo, the canteen at Måltidets hus (a shared facility for food research, development, and industry) in Stavanger, and the canteen of the Norwegian Maritime Competence Centre in Ålesund. The participants included 46% women and 53% men, with 51% under the age of 45 and 49% aged 45 or older.

Consumer attitude

A substantial majority of consumers in the product trials expressed a strong willingness to consume seaweed-based foods, with 78% agreeing or strongly agreeing with the statement, “I am very willing to eat food containing seaweed” (Figure 14). This aligns with similar findings on Italian consumers’ willingness to consume seaweed (Palmieri and Forleo 2020). At the same time, the results highlight the importance of how seaweed is positioned in food products, whether it is explicitly highlighted or used as a background ingredient (see Chapter 4). Conversely, despite this positive attitude, 74% of participants reported that they never or seldom consume seaweed products, suggesting that limited availability, accessibility, or both may constrain actual consumption. These results align with the survey findings presented in Figure 12, where a combined 70% of respondents reported never or very seldom consuming seaweed and only 5% reported often or very often.

Figure 14: Consumers’ willingness to eat food containing seaweed (left) and their actual consumption (right). Data are based on a survey of Norwegian consumers assessing willingness to eat (n = 237) and actual consumption (n = 238) of seaweed-containing food products. These results were collected alongside the hedonic ratings presented in Figure 13.

6.2. Food innovativeness and the adoption of seaweed: insights from focus groups

Consumer focus group interviews

As part of the SusKelpFood project, Alm et al. (2024) investigated whether food-innovative consumers exhibit distinct attitudes and informational needs compared to less food-innovative consumers. The study was based on six focus group interviews, and participants across all six groups were subsequently classified into two consumer segments according to their level of food innovativeness (see e.g., Huotilainen et al. 2006). These two segments were then used as the analytical basis for comparing perceptions, concerns, and expectations related to seaweed as food. Across both consumer segments, the focus group discussions explored psychological barriers and perceived opportunities associated with introducing seaweed into Norwegian diets. Overall, participants in both segments viewed seaweed as a sustainable and underutilized resource that should be more widely integrated into everyday meals. Nonetheless, participants expressed concerns about the ecological impact of both wild harvesting and seaweed cultivation, particularly regarding potential consequences for marine ecosystems dependent on kelp forests. This underscored a shared and strong demand across the two segments for transparent and accessible information about the sustainability of seaweed production to ensure its compatibility with environmentally conscious eating habits.

Consumers’ opinion

Participants in both consumer segments showed a marked preference for locally produced Norwegian seaweed, citing its lower environmental footprint and higher food safety standards due to stringent national regulations. Seaweed was widely regarded as a nutritious food, rich in minerals and vitamins, and comparable to vegetables. Nevertheless, its iodine content raised health concerns in five of the six focus group interviews, leading to scepticism about its overall health benefits. Seaweed was considered most suitable for dinner dishes, especially seafood-based meals such as fish burgers and soups. Its association with Asian cuisine made it a natural complement to noodle and vegetable dishes, and participants highlighted its compatibility with vegetarian and vegan diets to introduce “seafood” flavours.

Drivers and barriers to seaweed consumption

There was widespread curiosity about seaweed taste and its influence on dish flavour. While many anticipated a salty profile due to its marine origin, participants were open to using seaweed as a seasoning. They expressed interest in tasting opportunities, such as in-store samples or food festivals, before committing to purchases. Additionally, they sought independent, science-based information on iodine levels and other nutrients like protein and fibre to ensure safe consumption. Participants also expressed a desire for practical guidance on how to cook with seaweed. They indicated openness to trying seaweed dishes in restaurants, where they trusted the expertise of professional chefs. However, some hesitated to pay for unfamiliar dishes, reflecting a lack of confidence in their own cooking skills. This barrier may be mitigated through interventions such as culinary workshops, which have been shown to enhance cooking skills and facilitate the integration of seaweeds into dietary habits (Lafeuille et al. 2024).

Innovative vs. conservative consumers

Differences between the two consumer segments (i.e., food-innovative consumers vs. less food-innovative consumers) were relatively minor. Both segments expressed interest in learning more about seaweed, tasting it, and incorporating it into their diets. However, food-innovative consumers demonstrated greater awareness and actively sought information, particularly concerning potential risks such as PTEs and iodine. They also exhibited a more adventurous culinary approach, incorporating seaweed into a wider variety of dishes, including desserts, and favouring its use as a primary ingredient rather than a subtle flavour enhancer. This behaviour reflects their greater openness to experimentation and aligns with established characteristics of consumers who are more receptive to novel food products.

The results presented above suggest that consumer acceptance of seaweed-based foods depends strongly on individual differences in food-related values, openness to innovation and perceived behavioural control. Treating consumers as a single group therefore risks overlooking important opportunities and barriers to adoption. Segmenting consumers based on shared attitudes and behaviours provides a more targeted framework for understanding market potential and for designing differentiated product and communication strategies.

6.3. Consumer segments

Consumer segmentation is the process of dividing a market into distinct groups that share common characteristics, such as demographics, behaviours, or psychographics, to enable more targeted and effective marketing strategies. By doing so, businesses can better understand and address the specific needs and preferences of each segment (Wedel and Kamakura 2000). In the food domain, the food-related lifestyle (FRL) approach conceptualises lifestyle as a cognitive link between an individual’s core life values and their perceptions of, and behaviours toward, food. It explains how people differ in perceiving food and drink as a means of expressing or fulfilling their underlying values. The FRL framework has been employed in over 100 studies to segment, explain, and predict food-related behaviours (Brunsø et al. 2021). Applying the FRL framework to a nationally representative survey of Norwegian adults (n = 1,001) revealed three homogenous consumer segments with varying motivations for seaweed consumption: conservatives (16%), moderates (45%), and adventurous (39%). These segments closely resemble those identified by Brunsø et al. (2021) and Stancu et al. (2022), both in naming and in defining characteristics.

Conservatives are characterized by high food involvement but low food innovation and the lowest sense of food responsibility. They exhibit low intentions to consume seaweed, weak attitudes toward it, minimal perceived social pressure, and a low sense of behavioural control (i.e., perception of how easy or difficult it is to perform a behaviour; Ajzen 1991). Consequently, this group reports the lowest actual seaweed consumption. Demographically, conservatives are predominantly men, with 55% lacking a university or university college education, and 34% are active empty nesters.

Moderates, the largest segment, score around the average on all three core dimensions: food involvement, food innovativeness, and food responsibility. While their reported seaweed consumption is similar to that of the adventurous group (see next paragraph), they generally fall below the scale’s midpoint on attitudinal and behavioural measures related to seaweed. This group is relatively well-educated, with 56% holding university degrees, and men (52%) slightly outnumber women. This segment includes a diverse mix of life stages, particularly pre-family individuals (28%) and senior citizens or inactive empty nesters (21%).

Adventurous consumers (i.e., early adopters) stand out with the highest scores on all core dimensions, particularly food innovation. They show the strongest intentions to consume seaweed, the most positive attitudes, and the greatest perceived behavioural control, which is reflected in their higher actual consumption. Demographically, they are mostly female (57%), well-educated (60% with university or university college education), and younger, with 27% in the pre-family stage and only 16% being senior citizens or inactive empty nesters.

6.4. Cross-country comparison of consumer segments

High-potential seaweed consumers

Across multiple studies and countries, three consumer segments emerge as the most receptive to seaweed-based foods: progressive consumers (UK; Govaerts and Olsen 2024), food enthusiasts (Australia, UK, Croatia; Maksan et al. 2025), and adventurous consumers (Norway; Alm et al. in prep.). These groups share key traits that make them ideal targets for product development and marketing. They exhibit high levels of food innovativeness, food involvement, and a stronger sense of food responsibility. Progressive consumers in the UK also score highly on biospheric values, reflecting a deep concern for sustainability and environmental impact. Food enthusiasts report greater experience and frequency of seaweed consumption, especially in the UK and Croatia.

Consumer segment profiles

Demographically, these three segments include consumers who are typically younger, well-educated, and predominantly female. Food enthusiasts also include a higher proportion of vegetarians, pescatarians, and fish-preferring consumers, aligning well with the nutritional and environmental profile of seaweed. In contrast, conservative consumers across these countries are less engaged as observed from the Norwegian survey described in the previous section. They show weak attitudes towards food innovation, and minimal behavioural control regarding seaweed consumption, resulting in the lowest actual usage. This group tends to be older, less educated, and more likely to prefer red meat or poultry (Maksan et al. 2025). Targeting progressive, adventurous, and food enthusiast segments through tailored messaging and innovative product formats could significantly boost consumer acceptance and market growth for seaweed-based foods.

6.5. Conclusions

Consumer acceptance represents a decisive link between the technical feasibility of seaweed-based foods and their successful market uptake. While seaweed remains a niche food category in Norway and other Western countries, this chapter demonstrates that overall consumer perceptions are largely positive. Low consumption levels appear to reflect structural and practical barriers, such as limited availability, high prices, lack of familiarity, and insufficient guidance, rather than fundamental rejection of seaweed as a food ingredient.

Empirical findings from surveys, product trials and focus groups show that consumers are generally receptive to seaweed-based foods when sensory quality is acceptable and when products are embedded in familiar culinary contexts. In particular, younger, well-educated and food-innovative consumers display stronger intentions to consume seaweed, higher willingness to pay, and greater openness to culinary experimentation. These early adopters actively seek transparent, science-based information on food safety aspects, including iodine and potentially toxic elements, underscoring the importance of clear communication alongside product development. Explicitly, highlighting seaweed may appeal to adventurous consumers, whereas using seaweed as a background or functional ingredient can lower acceptance barriers among more conservative segments, especially in products with higher inclusion levels. This directly complement the processing and sensory insights presented in Chapters 4 and 5, emphasizing that product design, processing choices and communication strategies must be aligned.

Overall, the chapter shows that expanding seaweed consumption in Western diets requires more than technological optimisation. Market success depends on combining sensory quality, food safety assurance, and sustainability credentials with targeted product formats, accessible information and segment-specific communication. Addressing these factors in an integrated manner will be essential to translate the nutritional and functional potential of seaweeds into sustained consumer uptake and commercial viability.

Positive attitudes, low consumption: Western consumers generally view seaweed positively, but actual consumption remains limited due to low availability, high prices, limited familiarity and practical barriers.
High-potential consumer segments: Younger, well-educated and food-innovative consumers show the strongest acceptance, willingness to pay and openness to experimentation with seaweed-based foods.
Clear and accessible information: Consumers seek clear, easy-to-understand information about seaweed’s health benefits, culinary uses, and preparation methods, but also science-based information on iodine, food safety and sustainability to support informed choices. Suggested formats included brochures, recipes, and online resources.
Practical everyday use: Simple product formats and recipes on versatile ways to incorporate seaweed into familiar meals, such as salads, soups, and fish dishes, making it more approachable in daily cooking.
Sensory quality is decisive: Flavour and texture were identified as critical factors. Participants encouraged producers to prioritise flavour and mouthfeel, possibly by combining seaweed with other appealing ingredients.
Product innovation: There was a strong support for innovation in seaweed products. Participants called for new formats and flavour combinations in seaweed-derived food products, to attract a broader consumer base.
Market success requires integration: Broader adoption depends on coordinated efforts in product innovation, pricing, availability, education, marketing and collaboration with chefs, nutritionists and food professionals.