5.0 Distribution

This section on the distribution of EV batteries focuses on relevant regulation and policies for lithium-ion batteries, as well as environmental risks.

5.1 Policy and Regulation

The volatile nature of lithium-ion batteries makes them subject to a significant amount of regulation and mandatory safety measures that must be implemented when they are being distributed from battery manufacturing facilities to automotive manufacturers. Lithium-ion is the only type of battery material discussed in this report that to date has transport conditions comprehensively regulated. Other chemistries, namely sodium-ion, are likely to be subject to similar regulation when they become more widespread – though it is worth noting this will likely be far less stringent than for lithium-ion, due to the significantly safer nature of sodium-ion batteries. Evidence of a call for this legislation can be found in a proposal from Chinese experts to the UN, calling for transport regulation on batteries containing sodium-ion cells that should be in accordance with those for lithium-ion batteries.

United Nations (2022). Transport Provisions for Composite Batteries Consisting of Both Lithium-ion Cells and Sodium-ion Cells. E UN/SCETDG/61/INF.37. Retrieved from: https://unece.org/sites/default/files/2022-11/UN-SCETDG-61-INF37e.pdf

The UN Model Regulations provide detailed guidelines for the transportation of lithium-ion batteries along air, sea and land routes – defined as “Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods”.

United Nations (2019). Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods. Model Regulations, 1. Retrieved from: https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/danger/publi/unrec/rev21/ST-SG-AC10-1r21e_Vol1_WEB.pdf

A general overview of these guidelines relevant to lithium-ion batteries is as follows:

Minimum charge – Lithium-ion batteries must not be charged at a state-of-charge (SoC) level greater than 30%, to mitigate fire risks; SoC refers to the level of charge of a battery relative to its overall capacity. While an SoC of 0% would theoretically be the safest, this is not common practice in shipping for most battery technologies, as leaving them fully discharged for a long period of time can lead to battery degradation and instability. This is because the copper on the current collectors will begin to dissolve at zero volts – manufacturers thus must transport them in a slightly charged state, increasing the fire risk and transport costs. For certain technologies, particularly sodium-ion batteries (covered in section 4.2 ), this is not the case and they can be safely transported when fully discharged.

Packaging – Lithium-ion batteries must be fully enclosed within packaging that offers robust protection against various potential risks (for example, damage, compression, vibration, movement). The materials used for packaging must be both non-conductive and non-combustible. Metals like steel, aluminium or any combustible material are strictly prohibited. Individual cells and batteries must be separated and packed to prevent short circuits. This necessitates the use of inner packaging, dividers or similar means to ensure the safe transportation of batteries. Packages must be designed to withstand a 1.2m drop test without causing any damage to the cells or batteries inside. To ensure compliance, test reports validating that the packaging meets these stringent requirements must be readily available upon request, indicating a commitment to safety and accountability.
Labelling – Shipping documents must clearly state the nature of the cargo, specifically mentioning "Lithium-ion batteries," "Lithium metal batteries" or simply "Lithium batteries." Additionally, packages must bear the lithium battery warning mark, a distinctive inverse triangle featuring battery and flame symbols, providing a clear visual indicator of the contents' potential hazards. The outer packaging should also display the net quantity in grams or kilograms, alongside the labels "Lithium-ion battery" and either "UN3480” or “UN3481” – the former is the code that denotes a package contains lithium-ion batteries and nothing else, whereas the latter indicates that the batteries are contained in or packed with equipment. Furthermore, a multilingual warning label highlighting the flammability hazard in case the package is damaged should be affixed, ensuring that handlers are well-informed about the risks involved.

These regulations also vary slightly between differing modes of transport:

In air transport, adherence to specific packaging instructions, namely 965–967
These numbers represent “Packaging Instructions”, sets of specific UN requirements within the overall regulation document titled “Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods”.
, is required. These instructions mandate that packages must pass rigorous tests and bear lithium battery warning labels. Furthermore, each package must have an indication that emphasises the need for careful handling due to the flammability hazard associated with damaged packages. In the event of damage, specific procedures, including inspection and potential repacking, must be meticulously followed.

In sea transport, similar packaging instructions (965–967) apply. Cargo Transport Units carrying over 24 lithium cells/batteries must display lithium battery warning signs for enhanced visibility and awareness. Ship stowage plans must clearly indicate the locations designated for lithium battery storage. Special provisions should be in place to ensure proper storage and segregation from other dangerous goods, both in cargo spaces and on deck.
In land transport, packages containing more than eight lithium cells/batteries must be appropriately marked with the shipping name, UN number, labels and placards. Vehicles transporting over 333 kg of lithium cells/batteries must display elevated temperature warning signs to alert handlers and bystanders. Specific precautions are outlined, including storage away from heat sources, segregation from other dangerous goods and measures to mitigate the risks of theft. Additionally, drivers involved in the transportation of lithium batteries must undergo specialised training to handle batteries safely and responsibly.

5.2 Environmental Risks

Transporting EV batteries poses significant environmental risks that must be mitigated. A primary concern is the potential for hazardous chemical spills. Lithium-ion batteries contain chemicals and heavy metals like cobalt and nickel that can contaminate soil and water if leaked. Accidental spills arising from traffic accidents or maritime/aviation disasters during transportation could lead to environmental pollution, harming local ecosystems and wildlife. Responding to such incidents requires significant resources and poses challenges in containing the environmental impact promptly. Heavy metals found in lithium-ion batteries, such as cobalt and nickel, can be harmful. Shipping large quantities of batteries also raises concerns about energy consumption and emissions. The logistics of moving heavy batteries over long distances require significant energy, often sourced from fossil fuels.

To mitigate these risks, it is crucial to build further upon the stringent regulations and standards for the safe transportation of EV batteries, especially as newer technologies begin to mature. This includes implementing rigorous safety protocols, investing in research and development of more environmentally friendly battery technologies and promoting recycling and proper disposal methods. Additionally, promoting regional manufacturing of batteries to reduce transportation distances and investing in renewable energy sources for battery production and transportation can significantly minimise the environmental footprint associated with EV battery transportation. These local circular value chains will be critical for achieving the Nordics’ goal of establishing a closed-loop European battery network.