Appendix 1. Summary of study findings

The main findings of each study selected for the research review by Wollsheid et al (chapter 2) are outlined below with respect to the research questions discussing second-language learning. Each synopsis includes a brief introduction to the background, the methods, and a summary of the main findings. In total, 16 studies were included, five of which were effect studies.

Effect studies (experimental or quasi-experimental design)

Andersen, S. C., Humlum, M., & Guul, T. (2017). Modersmålsbaseret undervisning – Modersmålsundervisning på 1. klassetrin. TrygFondens Børneforskningscenter

Andersen et al. (2017) evaluated a programme that integrated first-language instruction for small groups of bilingual students in 1^st grade. A cluster randomised controlled trial was used, with a random selection of two rounds in the school years 2014/2015 and 2015/2016. For second-language learning, no measurable effects were found on students’ linguistic abilities in Danish, the second language. However, it was shown that first-language instruction could increase some students’ well-being and motivation, in addition to parents’ school engagement. The authors recommend further investigation into whether first-language instruction might have long-term effects on students’ competencies in Danish, when they reach 2^nd grade and take national tests in Danish. Based on test results it might be possible to study whether there are any effects of first-language instruction on students’ competencies in Danish. Furthermore, the authors conclude that these findings do not provide evidence to recommending first-language instruction, if the purpose is to improve the students’ second language.

Andersen, S. C., Guul, T. S., & Humlum, M. K. (2022). How first-language instruction transfers to majority-language skills. Nature Human Behaviour, 6(2), 229–235.

Andersen et al. (2022) applied a randomised controlled trial to investigate the effect of an asset-based approach to first-language instruction on children’s engagement in school, and how this might transfer into better second-language (Danish-language) skills later. The asset-based approach stems from Cummins (1986) who argues that minority students’ first-language skills and cultural background should be seen as assets rather than deficits to be considered in school. These findings support an asset-based approach, suggesting that first-language instruction facilitates students’ engagement in school and their learning, also in their second language (Danish). At the same time, the authors point to the fact that the results do not exclude the possibility that first-language instruction may also be affected by generic language instruction. Some of the effects might also be the result of increased instruction time or smaller group instruction. One year after the intervention ended, reading skills in the second language were significantly improved for students in the intervention group (asset-based approach) compared to the control group. Reduced behavioural problems could account for half of this improvement. Andersen et al. (2022) argue that average treatment effects might hide substantial variation across students with different first languages. One could expect weaker effects on second-language decoding skills, if the writing system and orthography of the students’ first language are distinct from those of the second language. For languages such as Arabic, Turkish, and Somali smaller effects on decoding skills were found in language comprehension, which may reflect variation in writing systems and orthographies between these languages and Danish. However, statistical power was limited to estimate subgroup effects with precision.

Tegunimataka, A. (2021). Does first-language training matter for immigrant children’s school achievements? Evidence from a Danish school reform. Nordic Journal of Migration Research, 11(3), 316–340.

Tegunimataka (2021) used a difference-in-difference approach to investigate the effect of the removal of first-language training on students’ grades in Danish (L2) and mathematics in grade 9 measured with standardised tests. The background was the latest Danish educational reform, which aimed to remove first-language training for students with foreign language backgrounds. Until 2002, supplementary first-language education had been provided to all children with at least one parent whose first language was different from Danish, if this language was spoken daily. After that year, state-financed support for supplementary first-language education was removed for students from non-European countries. Municipalities could, however, decide to keep mother-tongue education for children from other countries, if they funded it themselves.

Negative effects were found of the removal of first-language education on grades in Danish. More specifically, removing first-language training had negative effects on male students’ learning, but not on female students. According to the author, female students tend to have more training in their first language at home than male students, and they score better in first and second language. This means that male students are more dependent on additional instruction in their first language. Further, negative effects of the reform were also found on mathematics skills. This is explained by a decrease in problem-solving ability and thus proficiency in first and second language because of the reform. Additionally, before the reform, first-language (mother-tongue) teachers might have enhanced mathematics skills via first-language training, and more time at school might further boost overall achievement. The study found only negative effects for students with foreign-language background in the first generation, leading to the assumption that the time of exposure to the second language matters for the outcomes. Tegunimataka (2021) found negative effects in mathematics for students whose parents had a foreign-language background. These students might have lower competencies in the first language compared to first-generation immigrants and might have stronger needs for training in their first language. Because multilingualism can be related to mathematics achievements, there are negative effects after first-language education is removed. Furthermore, students who have a stronger need for additional school support seem to be affected more negatively by the reform.

Bylund, E., Hyltenstam, K., & Abrahamsson, N. (2021). Age of acquisition – not bilingualism – is the primary determinant of less than nativelike L2 ultimate attainment. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 24(1), 18–30.

Bylund et al. (2021) challenged the assumption that age of acquisition (AoA) – not bilingualism – is the main factor in second-language learning. They applied a unique experimental, 2x2 factorial design that included the following four groups: monolingual L1 speakers of Swedish, simultaneously bilingual L1 speakers of Swedish and Spanish, sequentially monolingual L2 speakers of Swedish (adoptees), and sequentially bilingual speakers of L1 Spanish and L2 Swedish, i.e., students who had immigrated to Sweden with their parents between the ages of 3 and 8. Findings indicate consistent effects of age of acquisition, but only limited effects of bilingualism on ultimate second-language learning. Thus, it is shown that age of acquisition, not bilingualism, is the primary determinant of L2 ultimate attainment. However, the study also shows that bilingualism might have a certain effect on some linguistic domains, e.g., lexis, while age of acquisition has more consistent effects over several domains. It is therefore important to consider the heterogeneity among students with foreign language backgrounds when measuring effects of bilingualism (Bylund et al., 2021). This requires a larger sample size.

Thordardottir, E. (2020). Are background variables good predictors of need for L2 assistance in school? Effects of age, L1, amount, and timing of exposure on Icelandic language and nonword repetition scores. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 23(4), 400–422.

Thordardottir (2020) studied Icelandic proficiency of a larger group of school-age second-language learners over time at three different grade levels and the effect of the students’ first-language skills. What lay in the background of the study was the Reykjavik School Board’s response to the sudden and dramatic increase in students with a home language other than Icelandic. The school board provided special support services to these students in Icelandic as a second language. Allocation criteria for eligibility for the support services needed to be formulated in the absence of specific evidence for this context. The initial criteria were based on two factors: length of residence (LoR) in Iceland and home- language background: depending on whether children’s home language was not tonal or tonal, the children were allocated two or three years of services. The first criterion was related to the assumption that weak Icelandic skills were to be expected during an initial period of adaptation to a new language and environment, with subsequent improvement such that children could eventually be expected to function in the Icelandic school environment. The second criterion was based purely on teacher observation that children from tonal language homes encountered more difficulty in the school environment. It was assumed that L2 speakers of Icelandic would score lower than their L1 counterparts, and that individual variability would be associated to previous exposure to Icelandic. Additionally, it was assumed that L2 speakers would perform similarly to L1 speakers on Icelandic, i.e., within normal limits (WNL), defined as students scoring at or above – 1 standard deviation (SD) relative to L1 grade peers.

Findings indicated that L2 learners as a group were lagging significantly and visibly behind L1 learners in their performance of Icelandic language. A large proportion of the L2 speakers, specifically among the oldest, performed more than 2 SDs below native peers. This implied that a large group of L2 students in Icelandic schools might require services to support them in Icelandic instruction.

One important goal of this study was to evaluate if service allocation criteria for L2 students were appropriately used in schools in Reykjavik, based on length of residence and home- language background. Findings did not support the use of these criteria. No difference was found in Icelandic mastery between students from tonal vs. non-tonal home-language background. For length in time of residence, no specific length in number of years was identified which was related to WNL performance in Icelandic. However, for the two oldest groups, an exposure level of 40% or higher was correlated with WNL status. The association between amount and timing of exposure and Icelandic mastery was shown to be complex and different across age groups. Thordardottir (2017) concluded that learning L2 in the school context is time-consuming and is not automatically successful. The poor mastery of L2 Icelandic of a large group of L2 students compared to L1 students does not imply language impairment, as it only reflects part of the overall language knowledge. However, low performance has implications for students’ future access to education and employment opportunities. Informed by findings of this study, the Reykjavik School Board changed its allocation criteria, which now comprise individual assessment of Icelandic proficiency. Further research to refine the criteria is in progress according to the study author.

Other study designs

Finland

Two evaluation studies and one doctoral thesis were selected for Finland:

Repo, E. (2023). Together towards language-aware schools. Perspectives on supporting increasing linguistic diversity [Doctoral dissertation, Faculty of Education, University of Turku].

Repo (2023) explores the transformation of the reformed language policies into practices at different levels of the education system in Finland. Her mixed methods approach draws on student and teacher data and documents from teacher education institutions. Taking a holistic approach, she argues that language awareness is a foundation to support increasing linguistic diversity based on the assumption that language policies are implemented in everyday practices in multilingual schools. However, supporting increasing linguistic diversity seems to require agency on different levels. She concludes that student agency in multilingual school settings is dependent on whether they have possibilities for activities that result from cooperation. Further, the importance of the voice of vulnerable student groups is mentioned. Repo (2023) advocates changes in teacher education to prepare practitioners to support students who are also learning the language of instruction in other subjects than the Finnish language. She argues for providing more attention to second- language learning in broader discussions on immigration and integration.

Laimi, T. V., S., Saarinen, J., Seppälä, S., Hietala, R., Kaivola, J., Merimaa-Jovanovic, R., Sulonen, K., & Yeasmin, N. (2024). Myöhään maahan tulleet oppilaat koulupolulla – Kehittävä arviointi maahanmuuttotaustaisten oppilaiden koulunkäyntivalmiuksia tukevassa toimenpideohjelmassa. (Education paths of immigrant students who arrived in Finland late. Enhancement-led evaluation in the action plan supporting the capabilities for attending school of students with an immigrant background).

Laimi et al. (2024) evaluated the instruction of students in grades 7–9 who had attended school in Finland for no more than four years, defined as newly arrived students. They investigated ways of arranging instruction for newly arrived students as well as support for and monitoring of the development of their basic skills. Only little information seemed to be available on these students’ basic skills when they came to Finland. To facilitate a smooth start to their school attendance, the authors recommended easy access to information about students’ knowledge and skills, even if their second-language skills were still weak. It was regarded as a problem that not all required information affecting school attendance on the students’ background was captured in the student information system. This had clear consequences for planning the organisation of teaching. The schools’ ability to support newly arrived students seems to be further affected by the short period in which students must complete basic education, when they are still learning the language of instruction. Laimi et al. (2024) conclude that teachers are often expected to find out the difference between evolving language proficiency and learning challenges, and that they often lack adequate tools to address this. Further, instructions seem to be unclear on how increasing language proficiency should be accounted for in student assessment.

Venäläinen, S., Laimi, T., Seppälä, S., Vuojus, T., Viitala, M., Ahlholm, M., Latomaa, S., Mård-Miettinen, K., Nirkkonen, M., & Huhtanen, M. (2022). Linguistic skills and capacities to attend school. Evaluation of preparatory education and instruction in the student’s own mother tongue. In: Finnish Education Evaluation Centre.

Venäläinen et al. (2022) evaluated the national instruction programme to prepare for basic education. The evaluation focused on the achievement of the instruction objectives and forms of providing education, and further factors strengthening and hindering learning. For teaching enhancing factors it was found that the availability of skilled teachers could facilitate first-language instruction. Additionally, an adequate group size makes the organisation of teaching easier. Offering instruction close to students’ home or in their own school and including the instruction in the students’ timetable as part of the school day was another positive factor. First, language instruction was assessed positively by school leaders, as they believe in the importance for students’ development to learn their own first language and its benefits for schooling in general. The recruitment of first-language teachers was regarded as a challenge. Recruitment challenges were related to candidates that lacked teacher training or other academic education, and a lack of experience in teaching or non-sufficient skills in Finnish language (Venäläinen et al., 2022).

Norway

For Norway, larger formative evaluation studies were found that combined quantitative and qualitative methods.

Lødding, B., Kindt, M. T., Randen, G. T., Lynnebakke, B., Vennerød-Diesen, F. F., Vika, K. S., & Grøgaard, J. B. (2022). Norskinnlæring, faglig utvikling og nye venner – er det mulig på samme tid? Delrapport fra prosjektet Forskning på opplæringstilbud til nyankomne elever (8232705809). (NIFU-Report 2022:26).

Lødding, B., Kindt, M. T., Vennerød-Diesen, F. F., Randen, G. T., Grøgaard, J. B., Tahir, H., & Samuelsen, Ø. A. (2024). Vilkår for inkluderende opplæring: Sluttrapport fra prosjektet Forskning på opplæringstilbud til nyankomne elever (8232706376). (NIFU-report 2024:4).

The aim of this evaluation was producing in-depth knowledge about the educational situation of children and young people aged 6–24 who had recently arrived in Norway. Lødding et al. (2022) argue that educational programmes addressing newly arrived students should strive for a balance between language, academic, and social support. Further, they stress the importance of schools providing well-grounded plans for the inclusion of newly arrived students in the school community, competent teachers in second-language teaching, bilingual teachers, and the schools’ systematic work to facilitate newly arrived students’ building of relationships with other students. Lødding et al. (2024) surveyed teachers on their perspectives and experiences with newly arrived students. Teachers in the survey pointed to advantages of separate classes for newly arrived students instead of placing them in ordinary classes. This enables teachers to provide individual students with more attention, adaptation, and follow-up. Teachers in separate classes reported to a far greater degree than their colleagues in ordinary classes that newly arrived students felt confident in speaking Norwegian in the classroom, considered to be important for the learning process (see also Rambøll Management, 2016b). Further, Lødding et al. (2024) found great variation in how municipalities arrange education for newly arrived students (see also Rambøll Management, 2016a). These students have a right to adapted instruction in Norwegian language and, if necessary, bilingual subject teaching and first-language instruction. The importance of teachers’ competencies in teaching Norwegian as a second language is further mentioned, as is the capacity to divide lessons into different levels, and access to bilingual teachers for bilingual teaching in subjects, in line with earlier studies (see also Rambøll Management, 2016b).

Other research identified the importance of more systematic mapping of foreign-language students’ skills and updated information of these students (Laimi et al., 2024). For Norway, Lødding et al. (2024) found that four of ten teachers had used the assessment tool provided by the Directorate of Education. This tool measures students’ skills in Norwegian L2. Assessing students’ language skills is, however, time-consuming, requires professional competencies, and requires cooperation between colleagues and follow-up of students. Students might not get the same assessment everywhere (Lødding et al., 2024). Further, there was variation between schools in terms of support of newly arrived students. Some schools might prioritise this group of students, while others might not. Further, there were variations in whether counties, which are responsible for upper secondary education, require documentation (such as passing compulsory education), and the right to upper secondary education. Finally, Lødding et al. (2024) found that some teachers and school leaders in their sample criticised that there was no curriculum in English for newly arrived students some of whom had never studied English. However, the legislation seems to provide unused possibilities for time allocation, both for students in ordinary classes and introductory classes.

Rambøll Management (2016a). Evaluering av særskilt språkopplæring og innføringstilbud. Utdanningsdirektoratet.

Rambøll Management (2016b). Kasusundersøkelse – innføringstilbud for minoritetsspråklige elever.

Rambøll Management (2016a) evaluated introductory offers for newly arrived students and to which degree it provided students with necessary skills in Norwegian so that the students could be transferred to ordinary classes. Many schools seemed to have identified good arrangements for organisation and content of the adapted language offer. Further, many school owners limited the programme originally scheduled from two years to one year to make transfers to regular classes more quickly, but it was shown that the one-year programme appeared insufficient for certain student groups. Legal amendments in terms of adapted language instruction in the Education Acts in 2012 seemed to have little impact on the design and organisation of the introductory offer. Differences were found between compulsory and upper secondary schools. At the county level, more school owners had established an introductory offer for upper secondary schools.

Rambøll Management (2016b) provided a detailed description of the organisation of the introductory offer by nine counties and municipalities. It showed that the introductory offers were mainly organised as partially integrated programmes with separate introductory classes in regular schools. Younger students, however, received mostly instruction through an integrated programme with individual adaptation in regular classes. At upper secondary school level, newly arrived students were provided education as a ‘zero’ year, i.e., students did not use their youth rights while attending the programme. It was a negative consequence that students did not have the same rights under the Education Act as regular students and had no right to special education. Changes in the Education Act, however, abolished the time limitation to the right to upper secondary education. Students now have this right until they have completed their education, and students in re-enforced compulsory education (§ 97) have the right to adapted language training and special education.

Rambøll Management (2016b) found that Norwegian language instruction was the priority, even though most introductory offers arranged their teaching around five subjects. Further differences were shown in whether schools and school owners emphasised that students in introductory offers should attend regular classes, with a clear distinction between compulsory and upper secondary school. At upper secondary school level, it was not usual for students to attend regular classes in contrast to compulsory school. There were more guidelines at primary school level for transitions. Key aspects for introduction programmes to operate appropriately for newly arrived students were: 1) School owners providing overall guidelines on the content in cooperation with expert teams and providing the foundation of well-functioning processes. 2) Teachers’ competencies were highlighted, given that students form a heterogeneous group. 3) Additionally, the two-year period was considered too short for an introductory offer, specifically for students arriving in Norway with little or no educational background. (Rambøll Management, 2016b). Overall, introductory offers were considered necessary and appropriate for many students, but more knowledge was required on programme quality and students’ results.

Aarsæther, F. (2021). Learning environment and social inclusion for newly arrived migrant children placed in separate programmes in elementary schools in Norway. Cogent Education, 8(1), 1932227.

Aarsaether (2021) explored how schools facilitate education and social inclusion for newly arrived students in elementary schools. Applying a qualitative small-scale design, differences were shown across the three programmes, which might influence the quality of education. First, age differences between students seem to limit teachers’ possibilities to promote learning for all students. Second, bilingual instruction, when provided, might ease newcomers’ access to the curriculum, and students might learn faster than in classrooms without bilingual instruction. Third, teachers trained in second-language instruction might provide a better learning environment than those without, which could to some extent be linked to a certain lack of clarity in national guidelines (see also Rambøll Management, 2016a; Norozi, 2019).

Sweden

For Sweden, a total of five studies were identified to investigate methods and practices of second-language learning and translanguaging. Unlike in Norway and Finland, no large evaluation studies were found for Sweden.

Ingves, A. (2024). Vägar mot ett svenskt ordförråd: Nyanlända ungdomars ordförrådsutveckling på språkintroduktionsprogrammet [Doctoral dissertation, University of Uppsala].

Ingves (2024) studied receptive vocabulary development in L2 Swedish among newly arrived students in the Swedish Language Introduction Programme (LIP). The study stressed the influence of language input and different learner-related factors on Swedish as a second language, regarding vocabulary as a dynamically changing system.

It was found that newly arrived students learn as great many Swedish words at a rapid pace despite the challenges they face. Further, the importance of providing basic literacy education and reading training has a prominent role in the LIP and is stated to bridge knowledge and skills gaps in the learner groups. While these students showed great development at a faster pace, these patterns differed across students over time. In general, this training did not seem to be sufficient to achieve the same level of knowledge as learners with longer or age-appropriate earlier school background.

The findings suggest that knowledge requirements for newly arrived students should be clearer, specifically with regards to reasonable expectations of Swedish language learning. Ingves (2024) points to a need to give clear specifications for students who have short, interrupted, or no previous school background. This also applies to opportunities to organise the LIP in a way that supports students’ language learning in different ways. 1) Access to a range of school subjects is beneficial for all students. More Swedish instruction per week seems particularly beneficial for students with short, interrupted, or no school background at all. 2) Facilitating good treatment and a supportive learning environment that includes access to study guidance appears to benefit beginners and intermediate learners. The author highlights the variation among newly arrived students with varying backgrounds and explores how this variation changes and transforms with different impacting factors.

Fejes, A., & Dahlstedt, M. (2020). Language introduction as a space for the inclusion and exclusion of young asylum seekers in Sweden. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-Being, 15, 9, Article 1761196.

Language introduction programmes (LIP) were set up in the wake of the upper secondary school reform of 2011 as one of the introductory offers in Swedish upper secondary school. These programmes seek to provide Swedish language instruction L2 to newly arrived students to enable them to enter a national upper secondary programme. LIP is a part of the Swedish educational system, regulated by the state. Municipalities have responsibility for provision and funding of the programme.

Fejes and Dahlstedt (2020) described a qualitative LIP design at five different schools: two ordinary schools run by the municipality, one independent upper secondary school, and two folkehøyskole. They found that while LIP students were offered the right to education, they did not always have the possibility to use this right for reasons such as a precarious and stressful life situation. Teachers worked hard to get students to attend school to create a sense of belonging. Certain organisational methods were used to facilitate the development of belonging, placing the LIP classroom in the middle of schools and organising activities across the entire school. The study also identified organisational arrangements that might have led to an exclusion of students. Students were in general positive and assessed their education as meaningful. It was concluded that the processes of inclusion and exclusion are complex, and often contradictory. Thus, to create an understanding of school as a place for inclusion, one needs to take a broad perspective, which helps to make it possible to identify these different dimensions and their relations.

Three studies were identified addressing translanguaging policies and multilingual classrooms.

Karlsson, A., Nygård Larsson, P., & Jakobsson, A. (2020). The continuity of learning in a translanguaging science classroom. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 15(1), 1–25.

Karlssson et al. (2020) explored how multilingual students use their first and second language as resources in authentic, meaning-making situations in a translanguaging science classroom (TSC) and how the students’ usage of these languages might affect continuity of science learning. Findings indicate that TSC classrooms in general offer increased opportunities to multilingual students to connect the subject matter to their first language and prior experience.

Dávila, L. T., & Bunar, N. (2020). Translanguaging through an advocacy lens: The roles of multilingual classroom assistants in Sweden. European Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8(1), 107– 126.

Dávila and Bunar (2020) explored how multilingual classrooms (MLC) develop and keep translanguaging efforts to build students’ learning and facilitate bicultural identities.

The study provides a critical examination of the perspectives of educators who work most closely with increasing numbers of newly arrived students in schools. First, the study offers nuanced understandings of teachers’ translanguaging stances that bring focus to the ways in which Multilingual Classroom Assistants (MCAs) serve as advocates for newly arrived immigrant and refugee students. And second, there is an analysis of the intersection between educator agency and national language policy. The provision of MLCs for students with Swedish as a second language has a tradition going back to the 1970s, regulated in educational legislation for compulsory and upper-secondary school (MCA) (e.g., Skolförordning 2011:400, chap. 5 § 4). MCAs work with newly arrived students who have resided in the country for two years or less. They may have different roles depending on individual students’ needs, for example the assessment of students’ prior knowledge and experience, and short- and long-term social and academic language support across all subject areas. In 2013, a set of guidelines was published to advise schools to deploy MCA before, during, or after mainstream classroom instruction (Skolverket, 2013).

It was found that MCAs can facilitate culturally sustaining pedagogies (Paris & Alim, 2014), adding to the wealth of knowledge and experiences newly arrived students enter school with. MCAs argued for strong support for translanguaging to reinforce students’ identities, well-being, and learning. MCAs and their students worked to integrate translanguaging pedagogic practices in Swedish-medium classrooms. At the same time, MCAs seem to use a discourse which pushes back against official policy structures they believe marginalise them, their students, and parents. According to Dávila and Bunar (2020), the power of MCAs’ agency in interpreting and shaping policy within schools must not be overlooked.

Warren, A. R. (2016). Multilingual study guidance in the Swedish compulsory school and the development of multilingual literacies. Nordland: Nordisk tidsskrift for andrespråksforskning, 11(2), 115–142.

Warren (2016) studied the functions of multilingual practices and the ways in which they help newly arrived students to reach their learning goals in subjects in the Swedish curriculum. She found that the functions of multilingual practices, such as reformulation, explanation and discussion, metalinguistic awareness, and task awareness show how the application of languages that newly arrived students understand besides their emerging Swedish help them understand Swedish words, concepts, and subject tasks and develop sociocultural awareness. Further multilingual study guidance (MSG) in the Swedish school can be regarded as a space for translanguaging to make sure that newly arrived students are not interrupted and that they are supported to achieve their learning goals of subjects. According to Warren (2016), the existence of MSG reflects an awareness on macro-level that the linguistic resources of newly arrived students are valuable and should be actively accessed to help them reach the knowledge goals of subjects. However, MSG was not always given to students who needed it, and there was high variation between schools and their understanding of MSG. Warren concludes that the potential of the translanguaging practices in MSG on the wider development of multilingual literacies remains to be addressed at the macro-level, given that MSG ends as soon as students have been considered ready for monolingual studies. As an elective subject, first-language instruction is regarded as the only possibility for the ongoing development of other languages by newly arrived students in Swedish school. Thus, the short-term perspective of MSG is considered negative and regarded as potentially impacting negatively on Swedish subject content.