3. Background

The integration of gender equality within the global climate action framework has been progressively emphasised since the early 1990s, beginning with foundational conferences and conventions that recognised the essential role of women in environmental conservation and sustainable development.

UN Women (2015). Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (BPfA), Beijing +5 Political Declaration and Outcome. Reprinted version of the BPfA.

The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 was a landmark event, establishing critical agreements like Agenda 21, the UNFCCC, and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), which acknowledged the importance of women's participation in environmental management and conservation. These foundational steps laid the groundwork for subsequent global agreements and initiatives aimed at integrating gender considerations into climate change policies and actions.

EIGE (2016). Gender in Environment and Climate Change

In 1995, during the Fourth World Conference on Women hosted by the UN, The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (BPfA), was established as a pivotal document for advancing women's empowerment and achieving gender equality globally. The BPfA specifically recognises the critical link between women, climate, and the environment, emphasising the importance of women's roles in environmental management and sustainable development. The Platform addresses the need for women's active participation in environmental decision-making and the integration of gender perspectives in sustainable development policies and acknowledges that environmental degradation disproportionately affects women, particularly in areas of poverty and where livelihoods are closely tied to natural resources. The BPfA call for global and national efforts to ensure women's equal access to environmental resources, involvement in climate change strategies, and capacity-building for environmental sustainability. This highlights the recognition of gender equality as essential not only in social, economic, and political spheres but also in addressing environmental and climate challenges.

UN WOMEN (2015). Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, Beijing +5 Political Declaration and Outcome

Moving forward to the contemporary framework established by the Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development, gender equality and women's empowerment are not only recognised as standalone goals (SDG 5) but also as pivotal for achieving the broader Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

UN WOMEN (2022). In focus: Sustainable Development Goal 5; UN WOMEN (n.d.). The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

This recognition highlights the necessity of gender mainstreaming in all areas of development, including climate change mitigation and adaptation and resilience. The Paris Agreement further solidified this approach by encouraging states to incorporate gender-responsive actions into their climate commitments.

UNFCCC. (n.d.). Chronology of gender in the intergovernmental process. https://unfccc.int/topics/gender/workstreams/chronology-of-gender-in-the-intergovernmental-process

The LWPG and its GAP – with amendments

At COP 25 the parties adopted the 5-year Enhanced Lima Work Programme on Gender and its associated Gender Action Plan (GAP). This decision underscored the commitment of the Parties to prioritize gender-responsive climate action and promote the integration of gender perspectives within the UNFCCC's implementation processes. At COP 26, Parties further strengthened their commitment to this by adopting Decision 20/CP.26, which included provisions related to reviewing the implementation of the Gender Action Plan. This decision further highlighted the significance of addressing gender considerations in climate policies. Subsequently, during COP 27, Parties conducted an intermediate review of the Gender Action Plan's implementation, building upon earlier decisions. This review resulted in amendments to certain deliverables and the introduction of three new activities in priority area C. and E.

The UNFCCC's Lima Work Programme on Gender and its Gender Action Plan represent significant efforts to embed gender considerations within the climate change agenda.

UNFCCC (2020). Enhanced Lima work programme on gender and its gender action plan. Decision 3/CP.25.

These initiatives aim to advance knowledge, understanding, and the implementation of gender-responsive climate actions at all levels, ensuring women's full, meaningful participation in the climate process. The aim of the UNFCCC GAP is:

“[To] advance knowledge and understanding of gender-responsive climate action and its coherent mainstreaming in the implementation of the UNFCCC and the work of Parties, the secretariat, UNs entities and all stakeholders at all levels, as well as women’s full, equal and meaningful participation in the UNFCCC process.”

UNFCCC (2023). Gender Action Plan - Decision 3/CP.25 and amendments agreed in Decisions 24/CP.27 and 15/CP.28

For each of the five priority areas of the UNFCCC GAP (outlined in the introduction chapter), various activities, levels of implementation, stakeholders responsible and expected outputs are described. For a full overview of the action plan, its priority areas, and associated activity descriptions, including output and responsibility, see Appendix B or the GAP with amendments.

UNFCCC (2023). Gender Action Plan - Decision 3/CP.25 and amendments agreed in Decisions 24/CP.27 and 15/CP.28

The forthcoming evaluation of the Enhanced LWPG and its GAP at the Subsidiary Body for Implementation’s (SBI) 61^st session in November 2024, leading to the programme conclusion at COP29, marks a critical juncture for assessing and enhancing the implementation of gender-responsive climate action. To inform the UNFCCC’s synthesis evaluation report, stakeholders, including Parties, UN entities, and relevant organisations, are requested to provide their feedback on the effectiveness, barriers, and future priorities in implementing the GAP by March 31, 2024.

UNFCCC (2023). Gender and climate change. Draft conclusions proposed by the Chair. Recommendation of the Subsidiary Body for Implementation ; UNFCCC (2024). Parties Will Decide the Future of the Gender Agenda in the UN Climate Change Process This Year

This process of evaluating the GAP is crucial for evaluating the progress, challenges, and future directions of gender mainstreaming in climate policy and aligns with the objectives captured in the 2022-SBI report, emphasising the need for enhanced actions and reporting structures to successfully implement the GAP.

UNFCCC, SBI (2022). Implementation of the activities contained in the gender action plan, areas for improvement and further work to be undertaken

The following section is a brief introduction to the strategy and methods of gender mainstreaming, as this review – guided by the structure of the UNFCCC GAP, whose implementation it aims to assess – de facto reviews the Nordic efforts in terms of gender mainstreaming in climate policy.

3.1 Gender mainstreaming

This section introduces the what, the why, and the how of gender mainstreaming, based on resources provided by The European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE),

EIGE (2019). Gender Analysis

UN Women and the Council of Europe.

The 1997 agreed conclusions of the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) defined gender mainstreaming as: “The process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programmes, in all areas and at all levels”

ECOSOC (1997). Gender Mainstreaming. Agreed conclusions.

, which remains the most widely used definition. Based on the ECOSOC definition, the Council of Europe defines gender mainstreaming in Europe as:

“[T]he (re)organisation, improvement, development and evaluation of policy processes, so that a gender equality perspective is incorporated in all policies at all levels at all stages, by the actors involved in policy-making.”

Council of Europe, Equality Division, Directorate General of Human Rights (2004). Gender mainstreaming – Conceptual framework, methodology, and presentation of good practices

What is gender mainstreaming? To achieve gender equality, a dual approach is necessary to make transformative change. This so-called twin-track approach involves both targeted actions focused on addressing specific gender equality challenges and integrated actions making all policies and programs gender-responsive. The latter is referred to as gender mainstreaming.

Gender mainstreaming is a multifaceted strategy to integrate a gender perspective into all levels and stages of policy and program development, from preparation to evaluation – across all sectors and at both international, national, and subnational levels. By integrating gender perspectives across all policies and programs, gender mainstreaming ensures that these initiatives are responsive to the diverse needs of society, thereby preventing the perpetuation of existing inequalities. At its core, gender mainstreaming is about improving the quality, relevance, and effectiveness of policy-making and legislative work by considering gender implications at every stage and, by doing so, ensuring gender-responsive (or transformative) policies. The approach is aligned with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, focusing on human rights, justice, the rule of law, and accountability, particularly emphasising vulnerable groups and the principle of leaving no one behind.

Why gender mainstream? The approach of gender mainstreaming is particularly important as traditional policies often fail to recognise the different gendered impacts, operating under the assumption of gender neutrality, even though structural gender inequalities persist. Gender mainstreaming seeks not just to prevent new inequalities but also to address and rectify existing ones. This involves identifying current gender disparities and developing policies to undo the underlying causes of these inequalities. Incorporating gender perspectives is a way to ensure that inequalities are not perpetuated. Gender mainstreaming pays special attention to vulnerable and marginalised groups, recognising the necessity of an intersectional approach that addresses the unique challenges faced by groups experiencing multiple forms of discrimination. By focusing on these groups, gender mainstreaming ensures that no one is left behind and that policies and programs are inclusive and equitable for all, regardless of gender.

To put it briefly, gender mainstreaming is considered essential in achieving gender equality.

How to perform gender mainstreaming? Gender mainstreaming is implemented through measures such as:

Policy and legislative frameworks demonstrating commitment to gender equality and gender mainstreaming.
Action plans and strategies, including objectives, targets, actions, steps, methods, and responsibilities in terms of gender mainstreaming.
Knowledge generation building up awareness and knowledge on gender equality and gender mainstreaming, e.g. through courses and training programs.
Resources allocated for gender mainstreaming activities.
Stakeholder involvement with a focus on involving diverse stakeholder groups, including women from local communities and Indigenous Peoples.
Engagement of gender expertise involving consultation with both internal and external experts in gender equality and gender mainstreaming.
Monitoring and evaluation ensuring accountability and reporting mechanisms to track progress, gaps etc.
Initiatives aimed at achieving gender balance in decision-making
Gender-responsive language in policy documents, ensuring that policies address gender equality.
Collection and availability of sex-disaggregated data to establish a foundation for gender analyses, impact assessments and gender budgeting.
Application of data in gender analyses
- Gender analyses identify differences between women and men in terms of their relative position in society and the distribution of resources, opportunities, constraints, and power in a given context. The first step is to collect available data and identify data gaps, and the second step is to uncover the underlying causes of gender inequalities. The third step is to let the analysis inform policies, programmes and projects directly, or to inform more specific gender impact assessments.
Gender Impact Assessment (GIA)
- GIA is an ex-ante assessment of a law, policy, or programme to estimate the likelihood of a given decision having positive, negative, or neutral consequences for the state of gender equality. A primary objective is to adapt the policy to ensure that discriminatory effects are removed or reduced. Beyond avoiding negative effects, a GIA as well as a gender analysis, can also be used in a more transformative way as a tool for defining gender equality objectives and formulating the policy to proactively promote gender equality.
Gender budgeting
- Gender budgeting is an approach for enhancing gender equality through budget management, e.g. how public resources are collected and spent. Though seemingly gender-neutral, national budgets impact individuals differently based on gender and identity. By analysing the budget from a gender perspective, gender budgeting exposes these disparities and integrates gender perspectives throughout the budgeting process.

EIGE provides detailed information and guides for institutions on gender mainstreaming, gender budgeting and other gender-responsive initiatives.

EIGE (n.d.). Gender mainstreaming

Also, in 2023, the OECD launched The Toolkit for Mainstreaming and Implementing Gender Equality.

OECD (2023). Toolkit for Mainstreaming and Implementing Gender Equality 2023

It is a practical resource to help governments, parliaments, and judiciaries implement the OECD Recommendation on Gender Equality in Public Life. In the context of the Nordic countries and in relation to climate work, chapter 5.1.3 in this report contains more information on tools and guiding resources. For further information on gender mainstreaming as well as guides and tools, visit EIGE’s platform on the subject.

EIGE (n.d.). Gender mainstreaming; EIGE (2017). Environment and climate change

In summary, gender mainstreaming is a comprehensive approach that embeds gender equality in every aspect of policy-making. It requires a systematic consideration of gender differences and aims to create policies that are inclusive, equitable, and responsive to the needs of all individuals, regardless of gender.

3.2 International and Nordic commitments for gender mainstreaming

This section describes the international and Nordic mandates for gender mainstreaming and obligations to work towards gender equality.

The Nordic countries were among the 189 states approving the ambitious Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (BPfA) in 1995. The BPfA outlines 12 critical areas of concern focusing on safeguarding women's human rights and ensuring that gender considerations are integrated into all national, regional, and international policies and programs.

UN WOMEN (2015). Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, Beijing +5 Political Declaration and Outcome

Progress on implementing the BPfA is reviewed every five years by the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW), with reports based on national reviews from UN member countries. Five reviews have been conducted, the latest in 2020, based on national review reports submitted in 2019.

Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) (n.d). Monitoring and reviews.

In the context of the European Union, gender mainstreaming is a fundamental principle and member states are obligated to integrate gender perspectives into their policies and activities as part of their commitment to promoting gender equality.

Council of Europe (n.d.). Council of Europe standards and institutional setting

The Amsterdam Treaty, which entered into force in 1999, played a crucial role in embedding gender mainstreaming into EU policies and activities. Article 3(2) of the Treaty on the European Union (TEU) and Article 8 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) specifically emphasise the importance of promoting gender equality as a fundamental EU objective. These articles require member states to actively work towards eliminating gender discrimination and promoting gender equality in all aspects of their policies and actions.

See the Gender Equality Strategy of the EU (provided at the European Commission's webpage) and the Gender Action Plan III: Towards a Gender-Equal World provided by the European Union External Action Services (EEAS)

While Norway and Iceland are not EU member states, they have strong commitments to gender equality and have integrated similar principles into their national policies and international agreements. These countries are part of the European Economic Area (EEA) and participate in various EU programs and initiatives. Additionally, they are signatories to international agreements and conventions on women’s rights, such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and member states of the Council of Europe.

Following the UNFCCC GAP, member states are encouraged to “participate and engage in the implementation of the gender-related activities within the gender action plan, as appropriate.”

UNFCCC (2023). The Enhanced Lima Work Programme on Gender (Decision 3/CP.25, §17)

The action plan thus mandates the incorporation of gender perspectives and the promotion of gender equality in all aspects of climate policy planning and implementation. The aim is to ensure that climate actions are both effective and equitable, addressing the diverse needs and contributions of both women and men in combating climate change.

At the 66th session of the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW66) in 2022, a landmark agreement was reached, signalling a significant global commitment to integrating gender equality into climate action. This agreement, endorsed by UN member states, established a comprehensive framework for addressing the intertwined challenges of climate change and gender inequality. It emphasised the need for structural changes to ensure equal participation of women in climate action, recognising the critical role of gender considerations in shaping effective and equitable climate policies. This historic agreement represents a pivotal moment in global efforts to mainstream gender perspectives into all aspects of climate strategy. It sets forth clear directives for member states to incorporate gender-responsive approaches in their climate actions, ensuring that policies and initiatives are inclusive and address the unique impacts of climate change on women and marginalised groups. The CSW66 agreement marks a significant step forward in acknowledging and addressing the gender-climate nexus as well as the intersectional perspectives of climate issues, laying a foundation for more inclusive and sustainable climate solutions worldwide.

UN Women (2022). CSW66 (2022).

Gender Mainstreaming in Nordic languages

Denmark: ”Ligestillingsvurdering”

Finland: ”Sukupuolinäkökulman valtavirtaistaminen”, ”Jämställdhetsintegrering/Könskonsekvensbedömning”

Iceland: ”Kynjasamþætting/kønsintegrering”

Norway: ”Sektoransvar for integrering av kjønnslikestilling”

Sweden: ”Jämställhetsintegrering”

In 2022, the Nordic Council of Ministers (NCM), following a decision by the Nordic ministers for gender equality and LGBTI to deepen their understanding of the gender-climate nexus, committed to a pioneering initiative under the Generation Equality's Action Coalition: Feminist Action for Climate Justice. This initiative, titled "A Green and Gender-equal Nordic Region," received widespread support from Nordic governments, marking a unified stride towards a region that balances environmental sustainability with gender equality.

Nordic Council of Ministers (2022). Commitment by the Nordic Council of Ministers under Generation Equality's Action Coalition: Feminist Action for Climate Justice

This commitment for the 2022-2024 period focuses on seven key areas:

the Nordic region works to ensure inclusive green jobs and educational opportunities, focusing on reducing the vertical and horizontal gender- segregation in the labor market, especially in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) education and employment.
the Nordic governments are working to ensure and strengthen the representation, empowerment, and influence of women in all their diversity in climate change decision-making and action at all national and international levels.
the Nordic region works to transition to sustainable consumption, including analyses of different consumption patterns by men and women.
the Nordic region works with sex-disaggregated data related to climate action and CO2 emissions.
the Nordic region works with gender analysis in climate policy design.
the Nordic region works with gender budgeting for climate policy measures.
the Nordic region works to gender mainstream climate policy in a structured way.”
Nordic Council of Ministers (2022). Commitment by the Nordic Council of Ministers under Generation Equality's Action Coalition: Feminist Action for Climate Justice

These efforts reflect a holistic approach to addressing climate change, acknowledging its differential impacts across genders and communities, and underscore the NCM's dedication to integrating sustainable development, gender equality, and inclusivity into its climate initiatives, aligning with goals outlined in the UNFCCC GAP.

Additionally, the NCM is committed to leading by example in integrating not only gender equality but also child rights and youth perspectives and sustainable development as such into all its operations, as it has adopted an official policy for mainstreaming these three cross-cutting perspectives.

Nordic Council of Ministers (2020). Nordic Council of Ministers policy for mainstreaming sustainable development, gender equality, and a child rights and youth perspective

This mainstreaming policy is guided by international commitments like the SDGs, the UN Convention on the CEDAW, and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). The policy implementation is supported by a mainstreaming guide targeted at all staff and partners of the NCM.

Nordic Council of Ministers (2021). Nordic Council of Ministers guidance for mainstreaming sustainable development, gender equality, and a child rights and youth perspective

The guide emphasises the importance of systematically analysing and incorporating these perspectives into every aspect of the work, from planning to evaluation, and provides practical steps and principles for integrating the cross-cutting perspectives – referred to as the horizontal perspectives. In the guide, a model for mainstreaming is presented, outlining four basic steps or phases of the mainstreaming cycle, which largely corresponds with the main structure of the UNFCCC GAP; ‘1: Develop knowledge and expertise’, 2: ‘Conduct impact analyses’, ‘3: Set goals, plan and implement’, ‘4: Follow up and evaluate.’ The implementation of the mainstreaming policy is supported by the IMPOLICY project, which was initiated in 2021 and will run until 2024.

3.3 Structure of the review

The following chapter 4 focuses on the implementation of the UNFCCC GAP. The structure of the sections in this chapter is based on the five priority areas of the UNCFCCC GAP, namely: ‘A: Capacity-building, knowledge management and communication’, ‘B: Gender balance, participation and women’s leadership’, ‘C: Coherence’, ‘D: Gender-responsive implementation and means of implementation’ and ‘E: Monitoring and reporting.’ Each sub-chapter ends with a summary.

Chapter 4.1 focuses on priority area A, focusing on enhancing knowledge and skills for integrating gender equality in climate work, emphasising the development of gender-responsive climate policies through promoting guidelines and training in gender mainstreaming and collecting and applying sex-disaggregated data in gender analyses alongside activities aimed at disseminating information on the relevance and importance of gender mainstreaming within climate policy and -action.

Chapter 4.2 assesses priority area B on gender balance and participation, specifically focusing on representation in decision-making, involvement of Indigenous Peoples, and gender equality in the green jobs sector, including efforts to ensure gender balance within STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) disciplines.

Chapter 4.3 concerns priority area C on ‘coherence’ and focuses on adapting international policies to national governance and ensuring consistent gender mainstreaming across policy areas and levels to strengthen institutions and improve organisational effectiveness. This includes supporting the implementation of the UNFCCC GAP through policies, legislative frameworks, and procedures that support gender mainstreaming.

Chapter 4.4 focuses on priority area D, which is about gender-responsive implementation and means of implementation. The chapter looks into the degree of involvement of gender experts and the employment of key measures of gender mainstreaming, i.e. gender impact assessments and gender budgeting. The chapter also assesses the gender-responsiveness of climate policies relevant to the implementation of the Paris Agreement by screening policy documents such as the Long-term Low-emissions strategies submitted to the UNFCCC, the latest review reports and the national Climate Action Plans from the five countries, respectively.

Chapter 4.5 assesses priority area E concerning mechanisms of monitoring and reporting, as clear monitoring routines are crucial for improving accountability and fulfilling national and international reporting commitments. This furthermore boosts transparency and facilitates knowledge and experience sharing across countries.

Chapter 5 presents gaps and barriers in implementing the UNFCCC GAP, identified in the review, followed by an overview of cases illustrating best practices in Chapter 6 and overall conclusions in Chapter 7. Finally, Chapter 8 presents recommendations for further improvement in implementing the UNFCCC GAP in the Nordic countries.

Descriptions of methodology, scope and limitations and a list of contributors are found in the appendixes.