The study comprises two main phases, (1) a literature review, and (2) the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).
Literature review
A literature review was performed to understand the state-of-art, the statistics for each of the studied countries, an overview of the most relevant and upcoming policies and legislation on both European and national level and existing life cycle assessments done for reusable packaging in the Nordics within transport packaging and takeaway with the purpose of establishing some relevant case studies to be assessed with the LCA.
LCA Methodological approach
Currently, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) provides the best and most mature framework for assessing the potential environmental impacts of products and services according to the European Commission (European Commission, 2019). One of the most frequent applications of LCA studies is the comparison of specific goods or services (European Commission - JRC - Institute for Environment and Sustainability, 2010). Several results of life cycle based assessments are already being used in relation to certain EU policies (e.g. Ecolabel Regulation, Green Product Procurement, Eco-design Directive). Given the method’s standardised framework, maturity and methodological adaptation to policy needs, the consideration of LCA studies in policymaking is expected to increase (European Commission, 2017). A very prominent example of the use of LCA in EU policies and impact assessment is the justification of possible changes in the waste hierarchy due to environmental concerns (European Commission, 2017). Given the previously outlined context and rationale for this study, it is important to acknowledge LCA as an iterative and continuous learning process rather than a mere calculation tool. As such, the modelling choices should be tailor-made to facilitate an efficient learning process and generate as much knowledge as possible about the specific case (Ekvall, 2020).
For the quantitative assessment of relevant systems from an ecological point of view, the methodology of LCA is suitable (in accordance with relevant ISO standards 14040 and 14044). The general methodology for LCA aims to assess identified and generated Life Cycle Inventories (LCIs), consisting of quantified elementary flows referring to the functional unit, in relation to their potential impact on the natural environment, human health, and issues related to natural resource use (European Commission - JRC - Institute for Environment and Sustainability, 2010).
LCA is a well-established four-step methodology. These steps are iterative and involve the following tasks (Guinée, et al., 2001):
Goal and scope definition: object and aim of the study are described, as well as system boundaries, functional unit and data sources; impact categories, indicators and characterisation models are selected.
Inventory analysis: this phase collects and quantifies data-based processes of inputs (e.g. fuel demand, energy demand, raw materials weights, air emissions, waste weights) in the whole life cycle of a system or product – as defined in step 1.
Impact assessment: inventory analysis results are assigned to the selected impact categories by means of established, scientific impact assessment methods; category indicator results are then calculated; the results can be evaluated by varying relevant parameter within a sensitivity analysis.
Interpretation: this phase analyses and interprets the results of the impact assessment, tries to highlight uncertainties and paths for improvement of the system.
A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) study according to the ISO 14040/44 standards is carried out. Key parameters and environmentally important life-cycle stages of the systems are identified and analysed. Further, the influence of certain key variables for the results is evaluated.
The assessed systems are modelled in Umberto 11, using ecoinvent 3.9 as the background database, and the Environmental Footprint (EF) method as the impact assessment method.
This study follows the principles of an attributional analysis, meaning that a specified and static state of a system or product is examined (Guinée, et al., 2001). Therefore, average data (representing average environmental burden from a specific activity or production volume) is incorporated in this assessment and results refer to an unambiguously defined current system. However, the allocation procedure of the Circular Footprint Formula (CFF) also comprises consequential perspectives and approaches. This means that both recycling and energy recovery are modelled with assumed substitution (i.e., avoided energy or material provision). This approach is widely established practice and particularly used in consequential LCAs in order to estimate how the global environmental impacts are affected by a decision. In this regard it is important to acknowledge the comparative nature of this assessment in which different options fulfilling the same function are considered. These options are made of different processes along the life cycle (e.g., raw materials extraction, manufacturing, transport, end-of-life stage).