Study

This section presents a study of how work against honour-based violence and oppression is organised in the various Nordic countries and autonomous regions. The following questions are addressed:

How is the issue of honour-based violence and oppression understood in the various Nordic countries at the policy level? What other terms are used and how?
How is work against honour-based violence and oppression organised in the various Nordic countries at a strategic level? What are the main actors, tasks and initiatives that can be identified?

Denmark

In the government document Ansvar for Danmark: Det politiske grundlag for Danmarks regering (Responsibility for Denmark: The Political Basis for the Government of Denmark), the government of Denmark expresses zero tolerance for violence against women and negative social control. It is noted that women with immigrant or refugee backgrounds in particular are overrepresented in women’s crisis centres in the country. The government also expresses its desire to strengthen preventive work by improving support and assistance for victims of violence. A desire is expressed for a greater and more persistent focus on work against negative social control.

Concepts and their usage

Honour-based conflicts

In Denmark the concepts ‘honour-based conflicts’ and ‘negative social control’ are used. The term ‘honour-based crime’ is also used in the judicial system. Honour-based conflicts are understood as conflicts that arise within close family relationships based on a perception that the family’s honour has been damaged. Family honour is in turn linked to the idea that the interests of the family are paramount and that the actions of the individual affect the family as a whole (the collective) and its honour. The term ‘honour-based’ refers to the underlying cause of conflict – a perception that the honour of the collective or family has been damaged. The term ‘conflict’ is used to highlight incompatible attitudes, interests, beliefs and values among the parties involved in relation to the perceived act of dishonour, with the focus centred on the conflict of interest.

The description of honour-based conflicts emphasises this collectivist dimension (a collectivist outlook on life) as being incongruous with individuals’ right to self-determination. According to the collectivist worldview, individuals are expected to adapt to the collective (the family) and patriarchal honour norms. The family is presented as having the right to control and limit individual family members’ ability to make decisions about their close relationships, education, clothing and so on. The immediate and extended family (including grandparents, uncles, aunts) are part of the collective. Control of individual family members serves two functions: to punish dishonourable behaviour and to prevent such behaviour. In this way, the concept of negative social control is used as a strategy alongside physical and psychological violence, sexual violence, economic violence, isolation, re-education trips and involuntary stays abroad. Honour killings and female genital cutting are described as the worst examples.

Negative social control

Violence and control are used both to punish those who violate norms and behaviour that the family or community considers decent (honourable) and to prevent behaviour that may be perceived as a violation of norms. Negative social control is one of the strategies used, alongside other forms of violence such as physical, psychological, economic and sexual violence. Specific examples include re-education trips, involuntary stays abroad, female genital cutting and honour killings. The discussion surrounding negative social control refers to women and girls with immigrant backgrounds and promotes the argument that they should have the same rights as ethnic Danish women and girls. At the intervention level, there is also a focus on the dual position of men and boys as perpetrators and victims, respectively, as well as on LGBTI individuals and religious apostates as particularly vulnerable target groups.

Work against honour-based violence and oppression

Efforts to combat honour-based violence in Denmark involve a number of sectors, with state authorities, municipalities, voluntary organisations and specialist units working together to prevent and combat violence. The Danish strategy focuses on protecting those at risk, training professionals and raising awareness of the problem in society.

Work at the strategic level

In recent years, the Government of Denmark has adopted several action plans containing specific measures against honour-based violence. These action plans include preventive measures, protection and support for victims of violence, and training and skills development for professionals.

Responsible ministry/department	Ministry of Immigration and Integration (Department of Migration and Integration)
Actors at the national level	Nationalt Center mod Æresrelaterede Konflikter (MÆRK; National Centre against Honour-based Conflicts) Sikkerhedskonsulenterne (The Security Consultants) Koordinationsenheden mod genopdragelsesrejser og ufrivillige udlandsophold (Coordination unit against child abduction and disciplining trips) Ligestillingsministeriet (Department for Gender Equality) Danish Health Authority Danish Authority of Social Services and Housing National Social Appeals Board The Agency of Family Law STUK – Danish Board of Education and Quality (Ministry of Children and Education) SVÆV–teams – specialised teams for cases involving domestic violence, rape, stalking and honour-based crimes within the police force VISO – Den national Videns og Speci-aliseringsorganisation (The Danish Knowledge and Specialisation Organisation)
Strategic steering documents	Et frit liv i Danmark – Regeringens styrkede indsats mod negativ social kontrol og parallelsamfund 2025–2028 (A free life in Denmark – The Government’s strengthened efforts against specified honour crimes and parallel societies 2025–2028) Barnet lov: Kommunale beredskabsplaner for æresrelaterede konflikter og negativ social kontrol (The Child Act: Municipal contingency plans for honour-based conflicts and specified honour crimes) Børnene Først (Children First) reform: Intervention team Family treatment National handlingsplan mod partnervold og partnerdrab 2023–2026 (National action plan against violence in close relationships and intimate partner homicide 2023–2026) Plads til forskellighed i fællesskabet – LGBT+ handlingsplan 2022–2025 (Room for diversity in the community – LGBT+ action plan 2022–2025)

The National handlingsplan mod partnervold og partnerdrab 2023–2026 (National action plan against violence in close relationships and intimate partner homicide 2023–2026) was developed in 2023 and contains several initiatives, including the ‘development of a systematic screening tool for healthcare professionals when meeting pregnant women and new parents’ to identify the occurrence of violence in close relationships, including honour-based violence and negative social control. In connection with the government’s national action plan, the Danish Ministry of Health, in collaboration with the Danish Agency for International Recruitment and Integration and the National Centre Against Honour-based Conflicts, has produced documentation for professionals to help them detect violence in close relationships, including honour-based conflicts. This includes handbooks aimed at municipal employees, maternity care providers, healthcare practitioners and general medical practitioners in Denmark.

In May 2024, the National Board of Health and Welfare, together with the Danish Agency for International Recruitment and Integration, produced a handbook for detecting violence in close relationships among pregnant women, expectant mothers and new parents. The purpose of the handbook is to raise awareness among healthcare professionals about issues relating to violence in close relationships. It is noted that meetings with patients in maternity care offer a rare opportunity to detect honour-based violence. According to the document, ethnic minorities are defined as particularly vulnerable. This particular vulnerability is due to their limited opportunities to contact healthcare services because of a lack of knowledge about how the healthcare system works and of the Danish language. It is noted that there are significant differences between different ethnic groups, but at the same time it can be observed that citizens with an immigrant background generally contact healthcare services less frequently. Within this group, women from ethnic minority backgrounds are highlighted as particularly vulnerable for several reasons, such as difficult migration processes, insufficient financial resources, limited connection to the labour market, social isolation and a lack of social networks in Denmark. This is also a target group that is more exposed to discrimination.

Main actors, tasks and initiatives

The Nationalt Center mod Æresrelaterede Konflikter (MÆRK; National Centre against Honour-based Conflicts) is part of the Danish Agency of International Recruitment and Integration, SIRI, under the Danish Ministry of Immigration and Integration. Before MÆRK was established in 2024, the Office for Diversity and Prevention at SIRI was responsible for tasks related to honour-based conflicts and negative social control. In 2024, responsibility for these tasks was transferred to MÆRK, which at the same time was given a strengthened mandate to coordinate national efforts in this area. In a government document from 2022, the Government of Denmark expressed a desire for a greater and more persistent focus on work against negative social control. The government text reads: “We want a greater and sustained focus on how we as a society can put an end to negative social control, so that girls and women with migrant backgrounds enjoy the same rights and freedoms as Danish women and men.”

MÆRK’s responsibilities include the following:

Advising municipalities and other actors, including other authorities and civil society actors, on the prevention and management of honour-based conflicts.
Providing training and skills development for professionals working with relevant issues.
Coordinating efforts at the national level and the development of methods and tools for managing honour-based conflicts.
Collecting and disseminating knowledge about honour-based conflicts.
Administration as the secretariat for the Sikkerhedskonsulenter (security consultants), the coordination unit against involuntary stays abroad and re-education trips, and a new system of rights advisors in youth education.

MÆRK offers two types of advisory services: one through the centre’s general advisory service and the other through the national group of security consultants. The general advisory service offers advice to professionals working in local authorities, professionals working in local authorities and other public authorities. Representatives from civil society can also contact MÆRK for advice based on its knowledge and experience of preventive measures. The scope of the advisory service includes:

The prevention, detection and management of honour-based conflicts and negative social control.
Optimising and improving the organisation of work.
Mapping and strengthening cooperation between civil society and municipalities.

MÆRK also offers professional development in the following areas:

Honour-based conflict and negative social control
Legislation concerning honour-based conflicts and negative social control
Handling doubt in professional contexts
Negative social control as a barrier to the employment of ethnic minority women
Democratic education and human rights
Closed families and environments

MÆRK also offers training for municipal employees to develop special expertise so they can serve as knowledge resource in providing guidance and advice to their colleagues on honour-based conflicts and negative social control.

As of 1 April 2024, when the new Children’s Law (Barnets Lov, LBK No. 83 of 25/01/2024) came into force, every municipality is obliged to have a plan in place to prevent, detect and deal with honour-based conflicts and negative social control directed at children, young people and their families, to screen for honour-based conflicts and to carry out risk assessments. MÆRK provides support to municipalities during the planning process.

A national security consultation team was established in 2018 as part of the Danish national action plan against honour-based conflicts and negative social control. Security consultants offer case-level advice to professionals and citizens on honour-based conflicts and re-education trips. They are based in five regions and have offices in four municipalities: Copenhagen, Aarhus, Odense and Aalborg, but work as a national team and offer advice to anyone in the country regardless of their municipality.

Security consultants provide advice on risk assessments and ensuring the safety and security of citizens. The advice covers issues such as honour-based conflicts, negative social control, re-education trips and involuntary stays abroad. Security consultants provide support to professionals in individual cases and coordinate work with other authorities and relevant actors. Advice to citizens covers issues such as the options available to individuals, what rights citizens have, how an individual’s behaviour (e.g. online) can impact safety and so on.

Security consultants provide support by coordinating the efforts of actors within municipalities and government agencies, as well as other efforts related to specific cases. This is done on a voluntary basis. A key task in this is familiarising all parties with the specific, current risk assessment. Citizens must always be closely involved and informed, and coordination must be carried out in a way that supports the empowerment of citizens and their ability to take responsibility for their individual circumstances. It is important to note that security consultants cannot step in as an authority in specific cases but provide support to relevant actors involved. Municipalities still have primary responsibility in individual cases.

Koordinationsenheden mod genopdragelsesrejser og ufrivillige udlandsophold (The Coordination Unit for Re-education Trips and Disciplining Trips) was established in 2020. It consists of representatives from the national security consultation team, the Danish Migration Agency and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark. The Coordination Unit is responsible for coordinating advice on cases of involuntary stays abroad between the unit’s members and other relevant authorities and actors. The Coordination Unit also provides advice to municipalities, authorities, citizens and other relevant actors.

SIRI/MÆRK administers a pool of funds for which the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Denmark and municipalities can apply to cover all or part of the costs of repatriating people over the age of 18 who are staying abroad involuntarily due to an honour-based conflict. The Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Denmark’s security service/citizen service should be contacted.

The Danish Migration Agency’s helpline for young people at risk of coercion offers guidance to young people who are at risk of being sent abroad against their will, as well as to reunited women seeking to leave a physically and/or psychologically violent marriage who need specific guidance regarding the possibilities for retaining their residence permit. Authorities, support persons and others seeking guidance in connection with the above problems can also contact the Danish Migration Agency.

The Danish Knowledge and Specialisation Organisation (VISO) provides free advice and investigation services on honour-based conflicts to professionals working in local municipalities. In individual cases, VISO offers advice and investigation services to professionals when a citizen under or over the age of 18 is exposed to an honour-based conflict. Advice may include, for example, a risk assessment, professional counselling and discussions with an at-risk young person and their family. In so-called group cases, characterised by a specific, local challenge in relation to a limited group of citizens experiencing the same problem, VISO offers skills development for public officials and other professionals.

Municipalities in Denmark play a key role in identifying and dealing with cases of honour-based violence. They are responsible for offering protection and support to individuals at risk of violence, including providing sheltered accommodation. The municipalities also work to integrate preventive measures in schools and other local institutions. The municipalities are responsible for taking proactive measures when there is concern that children or adults are being subjected to honour-based violence. This may include offering family treatment, a support contact person or other proactive measures. In taking action, it is the municipality’s task to support safety-oriented and rehabilitative work. Measures are taken if someone is exposed or at risk of being exposed to honour-based violence or control.

Under the Danish Act on Social Services (Section 12a), municipalities must offer free counselling to persons over the age of 18 seeking help due to honour-based conflict. Adults at risk of exposure to serious honour-based conflict must be offered an action plan if the municipality deems it necessary. Municipalities are also responsible for the integration of new arrivals who have been forced to move between municipalities due to honour-based conflict.

The Children First reform (Børnene Først) is based on the principles of the Children’s Act (Barnets lov) and also includes the establishment of specialised interventions such as intervention teams and family treatment aimed at ethnic minority families.

The intervention team aims to ensure early and coordinated efforts to protect children and young people from violence, negative social control and other social challenges by offering targeted support to families in vulnerable situations (cooperation between MÆRK, the Ministry of Social Affairs and Housing, and the Appeals Board).

Family treatment aims to support the whole family in changing inappropriate patterns and promoting positive development in the home, with particular attention to cultural and social conditions that may affect non-Western families.

Examples of voluntary organisations

In Denmark, there are a number of voluntary organisations working on issues associated with honour-based violence. RED Rådgivning is a national organisation that offers professional counselling on honour-based conflicts. It offers advice, including via the RED Support Line, to young people, adults, parents and professionals experiencing or working with honour-based conflicts. RED Rådgivning offers psychological counselling or physical trauma treatment to help people process trauma and has a network of psychologists and physical trauma therapists throughout Denmark. RED Safehouse offers special sheltered accommodation for both men and women exposed to negative social control, honour-based violence, forced marriage or threats thereof. RED+ is a crisis centre for ethnic minority LGBTI young people aged 16–30 with honour-based problems. Søstre mod vold og kontrol is a non-profit association that trains volunteers and works to promote women’s freedom and equality through counselling and support.

Identified challenges

No challenges are explicitly mentioned in the analysed material. However, the challenges identified in connection with an evaluation of the National Action Plan to Prevent Honour-based Conflicts and Specified Honour Crimes from 2016 are highlighted. The action plan proposed several measures and initiatives that were implemented during 2017–2020 and these were presented in the evaluation, including the travel team (Rejseholdet) and the national security consultants.

The evaluation showed that, overall, the action plan has fulfilled the objectives for the four areas described in the plan. However, some challenges have been highlighted, including those of resources. The evaluation concluded that insufficient resources have been allocated for the proposed measures. It was pointed out that more evacuation accommodation and additional resources to meet psychological support needs are required. The security consultants have also faced a lack of resources to disseminate knowledge to municipalities where they are not established.

Furthermore, the evaluation highlights an ongoing need for knowledge among professionals. Among other things, key individuals interviewed in connection with the evaluation pointed out that there is still a lack of knowledge about the connection between honour-based conflicts and negative social control and other social problems (e.g. unemployment, lack of resources, citizens’ housing situation, etc.). They also pointed out that there is a lack of knowledge about the connection between crime and the role of boys in negative social control as both victims and perpetrators, as well as a lack of knowledge about good examples in relation to the placement of children who are directly or indirectly involved in honour-based conflicts and negative social control.

Conclusions and comments

Efforts to combat honour-based violence in Denmark are extensive and involve a range of different actors, including government agencies, municipalities, non-governmental organisations and specialised centres. These efforts focus on preventing violence, vulnerable people and training professionals, with a strong emphasis on cooperation and specialisation in this area. Between 2017 and 2020, a national action plan was implemented that was specifically aimed at preventing honour-based conflicts and negative social control.

In Denmark, the issue of honour-based violence falls within the scope of integration policy. Regeringsunderlaget 2022 notes that women from migrant and refugee backgrounds are overrepresented in women’s crisis centres in the country and that girls and women with migrant backgrounds should have the same rights as ethnic Danish women and girls. Although it is not explicitly stated that such women and girls are vulnerable to honour-based violence, it can be taken as an implicit assumption given the strong focus on integration, democratic education and the dissemination of knowledge about human rights.

This division between ethnic Danes and minorities is made explicit in various steering documents and on the websites of the responsible authorities. With regard to the concept of ‘honour-based conflict’, there is an emphasis on the incompatibility between different values, beliefs and interests that arises between migrant families with patriarchal honour norms and individuals who oppose these norms and are thus interpreted as embracing Danish values.

Ethnic minorities are referred to as particularly vulnerable groups due to their limited opportunities to contact public authorities (e.g. health and medical services). This is explained by their limited knowledge of how the systems in Danish society operate and the Danish language. When the limitation is understood in this way, it is logical to see information campaigns and knowledge dissemination as a solution, but other causes of specific vulnerability are also mentioned, such as difficult migration processes, a lack of socio-economic resources, limited connections to the labour market and vulnerability to discrimination. On the one hand, considering honour-based violence from an integration perspective can help to highlight more forms of vulnerability at the individual and structural levels, but on the other, it can lead to further stigmatisation of certain groups.

What further characterises the Danish context is a strong focus on security, as is evidenced by the establishment of security consultants to assist various authorities and municipalities in matters relating to foreign travel, involuntary stays abroad and so-called re-education trips. Risk assessments, contingency plans and other security issues are an important part of the country’s work against all types of violence. However, given greater attention to these issues in relation to honour-based violence contributes to the pre-existing narrative about the unique nature of honour-based violence that promotes it as being more dangerous than violence in close relationships in other contexts.

Finland

Honour-based violence has recently begun to receive greater attention in Finland, while issues such as female genital cutting and forced marriage have long been topical social issues in public debate. At present, there is no specific strategy focusing specifically on honour-based violence, but two perspectives through which to understand the current work against honour-based violence can be distinguished. The first sees honour-based violence as a form of gender-based violence, domestic violence or violence in close relationships. The second sees it is a form of violence against children, which in turn is also related to gender and linked to heteronormative ideas about the behaviour of girls and boys.

Concepts and their usage

Finland’s national policies and strategic steering documents most often use the term ‘honour-based violence’, but the term ‘negative social control’ is also used. The definition of honour-based violence can be found in the national Action Plan for Combatting Violence Against Women 2020–2023 and Non-Violent Childhoods: Action Plan for the Prevention of Violence against Children 2020–2025.

In 2021 and 2023, workshops were held with the aim of developing terminology related to honour-based violence. Representatives from various ministries, organisations, actors and researchers participated in the workshops. The collaboration resulted in a list of recommended terms and terms that should be avoided. The list of terms included ‘shame’, ‘honour’, ‘honour-based conflict’ and ‘coercive control’. The importance of context when using different terms was particularly emphasised. The concept of ‘culture’ and its various uses were also discussed. It was noted that despite the important influence of culture on people’s lives, the term ‘culture’ should be avoided when explaining complex social processes with many different underlying causes.

Honour-based violence

Honour-based violence is defined as follows:

“Honour-based violence can take the form of psychological, physical, sexual and economic violence. In milder forms, it can involve strict limits on freedom of movement, friend groups and life choices, abuse, economic violence, threats and pressure. In extreme cases, preserving the honour of the family and relatives can lead to physical violence, female genital cutting, forced marriage or even murder. Violence can be perpetrated by a number of different people and in a variety of ways. The perpetrator and the victim’s immediate circle may believe that the violence or threat of violence is justified.”

In Non-Violent Childhoods: Action Plan for the Prevention of Violence against Children 2020–2025, honour-based violence is characterised by the use or threat of gender-based violence with the aim of protecting or restoring the honour of a family or clan when a family member is suspected of not following (or intending not to follow) the group’s rules on social and sexual behaviour. The action plan describes honour-based violence from a rights perspective, i.e. that honour-based violence is a violation of a child’s physical integrity and/or right to self-determination.

The definition of honour-based violence focuses on the expression of violence and examples of controlling behaviour, the collective dimension and the motive for violence – the protection or restoration of honour. It highlights that, like violence against children, honour-based violence is characterised by its purpose to not only punish or control a child’s behaviour but to protect the family’s reputation in the eyes of others. It is also noted that actual or perceived external pressure to use violence to protect the family’s honour plays an important role.

The action plan emphasises that honour-based violence should not be viewed separately from other forms of domestic violence and violence in close relationships. It also confirms that the most serious forms of honour-based violence are associated predominantly with certain migrant groups but that negative social control occurs in various communities.

Negative social control

The concept of negative social control is defined as control aimed at maintaining family and other norms that includes systematic actions that contravene legislation and the Convention on the Rights of the Child and thus violate the freedom and rights of individuals. Negative social control can lead to honour-based psychological and physical violence.

The Action Plan for Combatting Violence Against Women 2020–2023 highlights Satu Lidman and Tuuli Hong’s research on the legal status of victims of honour-based violence in Finland. Lidman and Hong argue that when honour-based violence is described in terms of violence against women or gender-based violence in close relationships, the distinctive feature of this violence – that it is social in nature – is overlooked. In Finland (as in other Western contexts), criminal law is based on a perspective that centres on the individual and does not cover social violence. Lidman and Tuuli’s study highlights an important distinction between understanding and dealing with honour-based violence as a social problem and as a crime.

Work against honour-based violence and oppression

Efforts to combat honour-based violence in Finland are organised through a range of initiatives involving government agencies, welfare services, municipalities, voluntary organisations and research institutions. The focus is on identifying, preventing and combating violence through legislation, education and support for victims of violence.

Work at the strategic level

Responsible ministry/department	Ministry of Social Affairs and Health Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment of Finland
Actors at the national level	Committee for Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (NAPE) Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare – Coordinator for work against honour-based violence
Strategic steering documents	Action Plan for Combatting Violence Against Women 2020–2023 Non-Violent Childhoods: Action Plan for the Prevention of Violence against Children 2020–2025 Action plan for the prevention of genital mutilation (FGM; 2019) Action Plan for the Istanbul Convention for 2022–2025 Åtgärdsplan för förebygga Handlingsprogram mot könsstympning av fl Genomförandeplan för Istanbulkonventionen 2022–202

Finland has developed national strategies and action plans to combat violence in close relationships, including honour-based violence. The latest action plan against violence in close relationships includes measures specifically targeting honour-based violence. These plans aim to:

strengthen legal and social protection for those exposed to honour-based violence
educate and inform authorities and professionals in schools, healthcare and social work on how to identify and handle cases of honour-based violence
improve cooperation between actors, including the police, social services and voluntary organisations

According to the Government Programme 2023, Finland will work to prevent various types of violence, including honour-based violence. Female genital cutting and forced marriage are specifically mentioned as acts that should be more clearly criminalised. Honour-based violence is included in Finland’s immigration and integration policy at the strategic level. Integration policy aims to integrate new arrivals through language and work and to ensure that they follow the rules of society. The government also aims to ensure opportunities for integration by promoting the personal responsibility of new arrivals for their integration and making the system binding. It is pointed out that Finland is working actively to prevent the formation of parallel societies. Honour-based violence shall be identified and combated, awareness of honour-based violence shall be raised and penalties for honour-based violence shall be increased.

The Action Plan for Combatting Violence Against Women 2020–2023 is the central steering document in this area. The programme provides a background to the measures, various themes and the measures themselves. What is new about this programme is that it pays particular attention to two forms of violence: honour-based violence and digital violence. According to the programme, honour-based violence and oppression are forms of violence against women: “Honour-based violence should not be viewed separately from other forms of domestic violence and violence in close relationships.”

It is also noted that there is no action plan in Finland covering the various forms of honour-based violence. Furthermore, there are no specific national guidelines on these cases of violence. Reference is also made to Action plan for the prevention of genital mutilation, Non-Violent Childhoods: Action Plan for the Prevention of Violence against Children 2020–2025 and GREVIO’s recommendations. Among its recommendations, GREVIO calls on Finland to strengthen coordination and cooperation structures between different actors and to educate professionals about different forms of violence against women, such as stalking, forced marriage, female genital cutting and ‘honour-based violence’.

The programme for combating violence against women proposes six groups of measures:

Raising awareness of violence against women
Training for professionals
Guidance for authorities
Programmes for perpetrators of domestic violence
Structures and regional coordination
Investigations and inquiries

Several measures are responses to recommendations made by GREVIO to Finland, for example in relation to the legal handling of honour-based violence (investigating the need for separate criminalisation) and strengthening the competence of those working with honour-based violence within the judicial system. Particular attention is paid to the need for better coordination of efforts to combat honour-based violence.

Among the steering documents referred to in the previous action plan is Non-Violent Childhoods: Action Plan for the Prevention of Violence against Children 2020–2025. According to the action plan, the following are considered specific issues: female genital cutting, non-medical circumcision of boys, honour-based violence and violence against children in religious communities (‘spiritual violence’). These issues are addressed in the action plan from a child perspective, with reference to, among other things, the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Child Welfare Act.

According to the action plan, honour-based violence differs from other violence against children due to its motive of protecting the family’s reputation. It is noted that there is not much research in this area, and there is also a lack of separate statistics and a specific action plan. The overall goal is to implement more effective measures to prevent honour-based violence against children. This, in turn, is comprised of three objectives:

Professionals working with issues of honour-based violence should be able to identify, prevent and intervene in honour-based violence.
Ekamples of measures:
- Honour-based violence will be included as a theme in basic training and ongoing education will be conducted for relevant authorities.
- Clear guidelines will be developed for early childhood educators, teachers, school counsellors, police officers and social and healthcare professionals on how to handle cases in which there is suspicion that a child is being subjected to honour-based violence.
Cooperation between organisations and support for groups working to combat honour-based violence should be promoted.
Examples of measures:
- Cooperation on honour-based violence between authorities and various organisations, including migrant organisations, will be promoted and necessary resources provided.
- Guidelines will be developed to support the initiation of discussions with families for preventive child protection.
Information should be gathered on the extent and forms of honour-based violence against children and on effective prevention measures.
Examples of measures:
- A questionnaire to measure the prevalence of honour-based violence will be developed and may be included in the School Health Promotion study in the future. Information about organisations that provide assistance will be attached to the questionnaire.
- The possibility of keeping statistics on crimes related to honour-based violence is being investigated.

In summary, the proposed measures concern training and skills development among professionals, better coordination and cooperation between a variety of actors and the collection of data on the prevalence of honour-based violence.

Furthermore, a specific group is highlighted in the action plan, namely victims of violence within religious communities, such as Laestadianism, the Pentecostal movement and the Evangelical Lutheran Church. This section considers vulnerability to violence from an experiential perspective, unlike other chapters in the action plan. Violence within religious communities is characteristically similar to honour-based violence, for example in terms of the importance of the community (fellowship and collective) and demands on the individual to conform, strong authority figures, and the justification of violence through reference to religion. The ambivalent relationship and combination of both negative and positive experiences is mentioned as an important aspect. The term ‘religious violence’ is used in the action plan, referring to psychological violence with a religious dimension.

The Action Plan for the Istanbul Convention for 2022–2025 states that access to help, support and care for people who have experienced honour-based violence and undergone female genital cutting should be strengthened as part of the current social and healthcare system.

The Action plan for the prevention of genital mutilation (FGM; 2019) describes female genital mutilation (female genital cutting) as a form of honour-based violence: “Female genital mutilation is linked to the concept of honour, and in many cultures the procedure is seen as a sign that a girl or woman is honourable and respectable and is considered a prerequisite for her to be able to marry.” Female genital cutting is described as a highly culture-bound phenomenon, and therefore the need to engage cultural interpreters to assist in working with communities where the tradition is practised is emphasised. It is proposed that cultural interpreters, i.e. those from similar cultural backgrounds, can talk about female genital cutting in a culturally sensitive manner.

In its report to GREVIO in October 2023, the government notes that understanding and framing female genital cutting as a form of honour-based violence has helped to ensure that preventive measures have benefited more people and that resources for preventive work have been secured.

Main actors, tasks and intiatives

The Ministry of Social Affairs and Health plays a central role in coordinating efforts to combat honour-based violence at the national level. It is responsible for planning and steering efforts to combat violence in close relationships. Honour-based violence falls within the ministry’s area of responsibility. Its goal is to prevent violence and develop a nationwide service system that can offer services and support to different parties involved in violence in close relationships, regardless of where they live.

Finland has signed and ratified the Istanbul Convention, which entered into force on 1 August 2015. The Convention requires the establishment of a coordinating body in the field of gender-based violence, in Finland this is the Committee for Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (NAPE). The Committee operates in conjunction with the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health. It is responsible for coordinating, monitoring and assessing the impact of the measures required for the implementation of the Istanbul Convention, which must be approved by the government. The Committee also collects relevant statistical data on cases involving all forms of violence and cooperates with other bodies.

The Committee consists of representatives from various ministries and actors within the administration under their authority. The Committee shall include representatives from at least the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland, the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of the Interior, the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Education and Culture, the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment of Finland, the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, the National Police Board of Finland, the Finnish National Agency for Education, the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, and local government and welfare services.

The Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, THL, is responsible for coordinating national prevention efforts against all forms of violence, including radicalisation, extremism, violence in close relationships, violence against children and honour-based violence. The Institute also coordinates a network of authorities and organisations responsible for issues relating to violence in close relationships in various welfare areas. THL holds online training courses, including on honour-based violence. There are training videos available in various languages, including Arabic and Kurdish.

THL is responsible for arranging shelter services and for coordinating and developing the service network throughout the country. Sheltered housing is intended for all individuals or families who have experienced violence in close relationships or threats of violence. Shelters provide immediate crisis assistance, round-the-clock sheltered accommodation and psychosocial support, counselling and guidance in emergency situations. The Nollinjen helpline is a free, national helpline for anyone who has experienced violence or threats of violence in close relationships. THL is responsible for organising the service, which is provided by Setlementti Tampere ry. The Ministry of Justice funds Nollinjen. In recent years, helpline staff have been trained in honour-based violence and guidelines have been established for dealing with cases of honour-based violence.

The Seri Support Centre is a unit at the Women’s Hospital (Helsinki) that provides support to people over the age of 16 who have experienced sexual violence, regardless of gender. The Seri Support Centre provides forensic examinations, trauma support, psychological counselling and therapy. Today, there are 25 Seri Support Centres across Finland.

The municipalities and wellbeing services counties are responsible for promoting welfare, health and safety. Wellbeing services counties are responsible for organising social and health care services for victims of violence. THL is responsible for organising shelter services, which are provided by non-governmental organisations and the wellbeing services counties.

The MARAK – multidisciplinary risk assessment is a method for helping victims of serious violence in close relationships and is intended for those experiencing violence in a close relationship, honour-based violence or threats of violence in their daily lives. The method relies on working groups bringing together authorities and organisations that work to help victims and coordinating support for them. In 2023, there were a total of 40 local and regional MARAK groups in Finland.

MARAK consists of a systematic violence risk assessment. In cases of elevated risk, the victim is assisted by a multi-professional working group. The working group draws up a multi-professional plan aimed at promoting the victim’s safety.

The Action Plan for Combatting Violence Against Women 2020–2023 states that a national competence cluster on honour-based violence is to be established in connection with THL (measure no. 28). THL currently employs about 20 people working on various issues related to violence who will contribute their various areas of expertise on honour-based violence. To strengthen expertise on honour-based violence, THL will employ a coordinator for work against honour-based violence. The coordinator’s tasks will include ensuring that social and healthcare professionals and other key professional groups have expertise on honour-based violence, as well as maintaining and strengthening cooperation with other organisations.

The Social and healthcare team at the Finnish Immigration Service’s reception unit coordinates, plans and supervises operations and arranges training for the social and healthcare staff at the reception centres. The staff at the reception centre assess the need for urgent and necessary care and consult the social and healthcare team at the Immigration Service’s reception unit. They conduct an initial health examination and provide health information.

Examples of voluntary organisations

Voluntary organisations play an important role. They offer support to vulnerable individuals and work to raise awareness of the problem. Examples of such organisations include MONIKA – Multicultural Women’s Association, which offers protection and support to women with migrant backgrounds who are subjected to violence, including honour-based violence. Setlementti Tampere’s Naistari works to support women and girls at risk of honour-based violence by providing counselling and protection. Setlementti Tampere Didar is specifically aimed at people who are vulnerable to honour-based violence and oppression. DIDAR offers group activities in different languages and guidance in situations involving threats of honour-based violence. The services are confidential, free of charge and open to everyone.

Sopu work is an established method of working. The aim is to prevent honour-based conflicts and acts of violence within families and communities through crisis support and education. Sopu carries out preventive and crisis work in the field of honour-based conflicts and violence and is part of Loisto setlementti, an umbrella organisation for units that work in various ways with young people in vulnerable situations to improve their wellbeing, prevent marginalisation and support their mental health.

The Finnish League for Human Rights is a human rights organisation that has been working on issues related to female genital cutting and honour-based violence for many years. The organisation works actively to prevent honour-based conflicts and human rights violations. It provides support to officials and monitors legal and social developments in this area. It collaborates with other organisations and coordinates a network on honour-based violence, which was founded by the organisation in 2014. It also carries out preventive work against female genital cutting of girls and women.

Identified challenges

Both authorities and voluntary organisations claim that Finland has not worked specifically on issues relating to honour-based violence. The need for knowledge about the prevalence of honour-based violence is particularly highlighted, even though statistics on the incidence of violence are currently available based on data from support organisations and shelters. Lack of knowledge has also been highlighted as another challenge. Several measures proposed in various steering documents specifically target skills enhancement initiatives and training.

With reference to Satu Lidman and Tuuli Hong’s research, another challenge can be highlighted, namely the conflict that arises in the legal handling of honour-based violence with its specific collective dimension and the criminal justice system that is based on individual subjects. This is a challenge that affects most Western countries that criminalise honour-based violence with a focus on the specific motive, which makes it difficult to investigate such crimes.

The Action plan for the prevention of genital mutilation highlights the role of the media in preventing female genital cutting, which can also be interpreted as a challenge. For example, the plan addresses the issue of how victims are represented in the media, arguing that too much focus on the suffering of victims, risks creating a greater divide between the community where the tradition is practised and the majority population. It is a challenge for journalists to highlight the conflicting motives of parents, families and communities in decisions about female genital cutting. Simplifying the issue by presenting a victim-perpetrator constellation makes it difficult to understand the tradition and communication and work against female genital cutting.

Similar problems arise in relation to other forms of honour-based violence, where the media produces and reproduces discourses on honour-based violence, victims of violence and perpetrators and risks reinforcing negative stereotypical perceptions of ethnic minorities. It is important to note here that the challenge identified should not be interpreted in terms of restrictions on freedom of expression but rather highlighting the media’s responsibility in the representation of minority groups through the selection and prioritisation of certain cases.

Conclusions and comments

In Finland, honour-based violence and oppression is presented as a problem of integration, violence against women and violence in close relationships. As in Denmark, efforts to combat honour-based violence are included as part of integration policy. The government programme refers to honour-based violence as part of immigration and integration policy. Integration is described in relation to societal rules, language, work and the personal responsibility and obligation of individuals to integrate. Integration policy should be designed so as to counteract the formation of parallel societies. The government programme also states that honour-based violence is incompatible with the rule of law and democracy, which makes the issue of honour-based violence a matter of democracy.

The Ministry of Social Affairs and Health and the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare are the main actors in this area. Honour-based violence is also included in the Action Plan for Combating Violence against Women, which emphasises that honour-based violence should not be considered separately from other forms of domestic violence or violence in close relationships. In this way, a certain duality can be observed in the question of which policy area work against honour-based violence belongs to – integration or health and welfare. Work against honour-based violence and oppression is also included in the Action Plan for the Istanbul Convention and is thus included in broader work against gender-based violence.

An additional dimension is created by the fact that religious and spiritual violence is mentioned in steering documents concerning violence against children. The described mechanisms and consequences of violence, concerning the relationship between the individual and the collective (religious community) as well as exclusion and isolation, are reminiscent of the mechanisms of violence usually described in relation to honour-based violence. This raises a further question about the nature of honour-based violence and what it means for work against violence in general.

Finland has long been working on two related issues: female genital cutting and forced marriage, which are now framed as forms of honour-based violence. Previously, female genital cutting was included as an aspect of sexual health and sexual and reproductive rights, and forced marriage is treated as a form of human trafficking. Female genital cutting is interpreted as a form of gender-based violence. The Finnish government writes in its report to GREVIO that by framing these issues as honour-based violence, they receive more attention and also better funding.

Finally, honour-based violence is discussed in various steering documents in several different ways, including as an issue of democracy, equality, human rights (sexual and reproductive rights and physical integrity), criminal law, violence against women, violence against children and child rearing, integration, and sex education.

Iceland

Efforts to combat honour-based violence in Iceland are part of broader efforts to combat violence in close relationships and promote gender equality. According to the Ministry of Social Affairs and Housing, the number of cases or suspected cases of honour-based violence remains fairly low. Although it can be said that honour-based violence is not as common in Iceland as in other Nordic countries, the Government of Iceland is aware of the problem and the importance of taking necessary measures to combat this form of violence.

Iceland ratified the Istanbul Convention in 2018, meaning that national legislation is required to comply with the standards established therein, including provisions on gender-based violence, violence in close relationships, forced marriage and other forms of violence. The Ministry of Justice is currently leading a working group tasked with developing an action plan for the implementation of the Istanbul Convention, including measures against honour-based violence.

Concepts and their usage

The concepts of honour-based violence and oppression and negative social control are not used in Iceland’s steering documents. However, looking at the definition of violence and its various forms, it refers to physical, psychological, sexual, economic and digital violence, neglect, stalking and harassment. Psychological violence includes expressions such as threats, humiliation and control. Honour-based violence or violence in the name of honour, forced marriage and female genital cutting are also mentioned.

In addition to the forms and expressions mentioned above, violence based on discrimination is also mentioned: violence and harassment directed at individuals because of their origin, gender, race, sexuality, gender identity, disability or other status. Such violence can be understood as hate crime, which also includes gender. The National Agency for Children and Families uses the same descriptions of violence and includes violence based on discrimination in its list of different forms of violence.

Work against honour-based violence and oppression

Work at the strategic level

Responsible ministry/department	Ministry of Justice, Ministry of Social Affairs and Housing, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Education and Children
Actors at the national level	The National Agency for Children and Families
Strategic steering documents	National Action Plan against Violence 2019–2022 National Action Plan for Matters of Immigrants 2022–2025

At present, there is no steering document that specifically addresses honour-based violence. Strategic work, including action plans, has so far focused on combating violence in all its forms, including honour-based violence and oppression. As mentioned earlier, work is underway to implement Iceland’s commitment under the Istanbul Convention. Although there is currently no specific strategy or action plan for combating honour-based violence, there are other steering documents that are relevant to combating honour-based violence within the framework of general efforts to combat violence.

The National Action Plan against Violence 2019–2022 included various measures against violence in Icelandic society, to be implemented through cooperation between various ministries, institutions, municipalities and non-governmental organisations. Strategic planning in this area is based on national legislation and international agreements. Work against violence is carried out in cooperation between the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Social Affairs and Housing. The Ministry of Justice has overall responsibility for coordinating the work.

In accordance with the Istanbul Convention, the steering group, comprising representatives from various ministries, has drawn up an action plan against violence. The plan includes preventive measures, including education, as well as support and protection for victims of violence (empowerment). The measures cover violence against children, violence in close relationships, sexual, physical and psychological violence and violence against persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups. The measures also cover hate crimes.

The National Action Plan for Matters of Immigrants 2022–2025 emphasises five areas: society, family, education, the labour market and refugee issues. The action plan also includes measures to combat violence. The aim is to make services and resources available to victims and perpetrators with a foreign background. Particular attention is paid to the fact that people with a foreign background may have language difficulties and therefore need extra support. The action plan includes preventive measures – training on different forms of violence for professionals who come into contact with people with a foreign background (social services, study and career counsellors, nurses, teachers and police officers). The emphasis is on Nordic cooperation and inviting experts from other Nordic countries to share their knowledge and experience. The Ministry of Social Affairs and Housing is the organisation responsible. The measures are planned to be implemented in cooperation with local authorities, the Multicultural Information Centre, the Immigrant Council, Women’s Refuge, Iceland’s Human Rights Office, Bjarkarhlíð, Heimilisfiður, healthcare providers, the Icelandic Red Cross, the Nordic Welfare Centre (NWC) and Nordic experts on migration issues. It is important to note that the action plan does not refer to honour-based violence and oppression or concepts such as negative social control; the measures are aimed at all forms of violence to which people with a foreign background are exposed or at risk of exposure.

Main actors, tasks and initiatives

At the national level, the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of Social Affairs and Housing, the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Education and Children cooperate on issues related to violence, including honour-based violence. The ministries cooperate with the police, the judiciary and social services to address these issues.

Although specific training programmes on honour-based violence are not as widespread as in other Nordic countries, these issues are included in the training of police officers, social workers and other professionals who may come into contact with vulnerable individuals. Awareness-raising initiatives targeting the general public and specific risk groups also exist. For example, the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour has supported and participated in a project led by the City of Reykjavik (Department of Welfare). In 2024, the Ministry organised training courses on honour-based violence for people working in the welfare system, including social affairs, child protection, the school system, the police, healthcare and non-governmental organisations, in collaboration with experts from Denmark. The training was the first step in raising awareness of honour-based violence, and the plan is to continue this work and expand knowledge in the area.

In spring 2014, Reykjavík City Council decided to launch a campaign against violence in collaboration with the Metropolitan Police, the health service and the women’s shelter Kvennaathvarfið. The project Together Against Violence aims to combat violence in close relationships by integrating and improving the procedures of the police, social services and child protection services in cases of children exposed to violence and by promoting greater awareness of the issue. The collaboration will provide better support to victims and perpetrators and improve the situation for children exposed to violence in the home.

Another example of a project that is now a permanent fixture is the Bjarkarhlíð Family Justice Centre in Reykjavík, which opened in 2017. During the pilot project in a small region of Iceland, the police found that people subjected to violence were more likely to report it if they received help shortly after experiencing violence. Bjarkarhlíð is run through a collaboration between the City of Reykjavík, the Reykjavík Police, Stígamót (an education and counselling centre for survivors of sexual violence), Drekaslóð (an education and service centre for survivors of all types of violence and their relatives), the women’s shelter, the women’s counselling service, the Ministry of Welfare, the Ministry of Justice and the Icelandic Human Rights Centre.

The opening of Bjarkarhlíð has resulted in a new procedure for incoming calls to the police pertaining to ongoing violence. Rather than responding to calls alone, police officers are accompanied by social workers, child protection representatives, doctors and lawyers to provide immediate support and guidance to the victim of violence. Afterwards, the victim is offered support and assistance at a family centre, with various actors following up with the victim after the incident. The project is now being run throughout Iceland and is accompanied by the implementation of the so-called ‘Austrian model’, under which authorities are given the right to remove perpetrators from the home instead of victims and to impose a restraining order on perpetrators if violence in a close relationship is suspected.

Bjarkarhlíð offers the following services to anyone over the age of 18 who has been subjected to violence:

Advice, support and information for victims of violence
Coordinated services under one roof
Individual interviews
Legal advice
Consultation with social workers
Support for victims of human trafficking for sexual purposes

It is important to note that the model for cooperation between the police, social services, social welfare services and healthcare in cases of acute violence in families with children under the age of 18, which has been tested and implemented in Sweden, is called the Iceland model. Barnahús (the National Agency for Children and Families) is another example, which has also been a source of inspiration for the government commission that laid the foundation for the Swedish Barnhusen. In other words, Iceland has extensive experience of cooperation that has proven successful both in Iceland and Sweden. The County Administrative Board in Sweden has taken Iceland’s experiences into account in its preliminary study ahead of developing resource centres for people who have been subjected to violence by relatives, with a particular focus on honour-based violence and oppression.

Examples of voluntary organisations

Voluntary organisations play an important role in providing support to vulnerable people and in raising awareness of issues relating to honour-based violence and oppression. In Iceland, there are several organisations working for women’s rights and against violence in close relationships. The Women’s Shelter is one of the leading organisations offering protection and support to women and children who are victims of violence. The Icelandic Red Cross also runs a helpline and chat service that offers psychosocial support, advice, a listening ear and information about the resources available in Icelandic society. Among other things, they receive calls from adults and children who have been subjected to violence.

Identified challenges

In Iceland, efforts to combat honour-based violence and oppression are part of broader efforts to combat violence in close relationships. In the steering documents studied, honour-based violence is referred to as one form of violence. The lack of action plans that specifically address honour-based violence could be considered a challenge, but at the same time it should not automatically lead to the assumption that there is a lack of awareness of the existence of honour-based violence.

Conclusions and comments

Efforts to combat honour-based violence in Iceland are integrated into broader efforts to combat violence in close relationships. This includes legislation, support for vulnerable individuals through sheltered accommodation and counselling, as well as education and cooperation with voluntary organisations. Although the phenomenon is not as common in Iceland as in some other countries, the authorities are aware of the problem and are working to provide protection and support to those affected.

In Iceland, a model for cross-sectoral cooperation has been developed that has also been adopted by other countries (e.g. Sweden). Collaboration and cross-sectoral cooperation are recurring themes in relation to men’s violence against women and violence in close relationships. The positive experiences of effective collaboration can be applied in work with all victims of violence.

Norway

Concepts and their usage

In the Norwegian context, two terms are used: ‘honour-based violence’ and ‘negative social control’. The first is used most frequently and seems to function as an umbrella term, while negative social control is used as an expression of honour-based violence together with expressions such as physical and psychological violence, threats of violence, forced marriage, etc. Definitions of key terms can be found in the latest action plan, Freedom from Negative Social Control and Honour Based Violence (2021–2024), issued by the Ministry of Education and Research in collaboration with several other authorities. The key terms are defined as follows:

Negative social control

Negative social control includes pressure, surveillance, control, threats or coercion that systematically restricts an individual in their daily life, repeatedly preventing them from making their own independent choices about their life and future. Negative social control can include both psychological violence and threats, as well as being forced into marriage. This applies, for example, to restrictions on individuals’ self-determination over their identity, body and sexuality, freedom to choose friends, participate in leisure activities, choose religious beliefs, clothing, education, work, partners and even access to health and medical care. Negative social control directed at children is given special attention in the yearly reports of the Norwegian Directorate for Children, Youth and Family Affairs (Bufdir). Parenting involves a certain degree of control, but sometimes the degree of control is unreasonable. When assessing whether a pattern of behaviour constitutes negative social control, consideration should be given to the age and development of the person being controlled and the principle of the best interests of the child.

The concept of ‘negative social control’ was first used in the action plan for the period 2017–2020. It was also the first action plan to discuss negative social control in non-honour-based contexts, such as negative social control exercised in ‘closed’ religious communities. According to the annual report from Bufdir from 2023: “Until 2017, these cases usually concerned people from ethnic minority backgrounds in Norway. In 2017, the first action plan was published that referred to negative social control in ‘closed’ religious communities, and in 2018, the Competence Team changed its mandate to include the phenomenon of negative social control. Since then, the Competence Team has sought to highlight that negative social control is also practised in certain religious communities where a large proportion of the congregation consists of ethnic Norwegian members.” Based on this report, it can be interpreted that the distinction between honour contexts and other contexts where negative social control occurs is based on ethnic affiliation: ethnic minorities or ethnic Norwegians.

It should be noted that religious practice and religious affiliation should not be equated with vulnerability or the exercise of negative social control. Instead, the focus should be on negative social control as a form of strict control to enforce compliance with religious norms and rules and punish violations.

In its 2023 annual report, Bufdir writes that negative social control can occur both in cases in which control is honour related and in cases in which it is intended to prevent violations of moral rules in a religious community or way of life. Negative social control in religious contexts can involve coercion to participate in prayer, religious school, forced marriage, etc. Despite the distinction between negative social control in the context of honour and negative social control in closed religious communities, Bufdir highlights the similarities between the two contexts. One of the similarities concerns exclusion and ostracism as punishment for violating the norms of a collective, which leads to isolation, loneliness and, in the long term, a risk of mental ill health. Another similarity concerns the boundaries created between the collective (including religious communities) and society, which can lead to individuals having insufficient knowledge about society and lacking trust in other people and social institutions.

Finally, the term ‘negative social control’ is not used in legislation. The term is defined in broad terms in the action plan, and it is difficult to strictly distinguish between psychological violence, negative social control in an honour context and negative social control in religious communities: en æreskontekst og i trossamfund (in an honour context and in religious communities). The distinction made, which is clearly evident in Bufdir’s annual report from 2023, is the ethnic background of the affected individuals and their families. Ethnic minorities are referenced in contexts involving negative social control in an honour context, while ethnic Norwegians are primarily referenced with regard to other forms of control and psychological violence.

Honour-based violence

Honour-based violence is defined as violence committed in association with a family or group’s need to protect or restore its honour and reputation. Such violence occurs within families and groups that impose expectations on individuals to conform to the collective, characterised by strong patriarchal norms of honour. All family members have a responsibility to ensure that the family and group maintain a good reputation. Girls and women are particularly vulnerable because the honour of the family or group is linked to the control of women’s sexuality and the belief that undesirable behaviour can damage the reputation of the entire family or group. Honour-based violence can take various forms, such as negative social control and forced marriage, humiliation, threats, ostracism and other psychological violence, physical violence and murder.

Other terms used that indicate acts included in honour-based violence are forced marriage, child marriage, female genital cutting, abduction abroad and involuntary stay abroad, psychological violence, and sexual violence. It should also be noted that forced marriage, child marriage and female genital cutting can be part of a more complex challenge. These crimes can occur without prior negative social control or honour-based violence.

Work against honour-based violence and oppression

Efforts to combat honour-based violence and oppression in Norway are organised through a combination of government initiatives, cooperation with municipalities and efforts by voluntary organisations. Honour-based violence is seen as a serious form of violence in close relationships that Norway has developed several strategies and measures to combat and prevent.

Work at the strategic level

Responsible department/ministry

Ministry of Labour and Social Inclusion Ministry of Children and Families

Ministry of Health and Care Services

Ministry of Culture and Equality

Ministry of Local Government and Regional Development

Ministry of Education and Research

Ministry of Justice and Public Security

Ministry of Foreign Affairs

The Ministry of Labour and Social Inclusion has a coordinating function.

Actors at the national level

Department of Integration (IMDi)

Specialist team for the prevention of negative social control and honour-based violence

Norwegian Directorate for Children, Youth and Family Affairs (Bufdir)

Competence team against negative social control and honour-based violence

Strategic steering documents

National action plan Freedom from Negative Social Control and Honour Based Violence (2021–2024)

Action plan against violence in close relationships, action plan against violence against children and integration strategy Integration through knowledge (2019–2022

The strategic work is a cross-sectoral collaboration between various ministries and authorities. In general, there is a strong focus on education and skills development for professionals, as well as guidance in specific cases. Norway has adopted several action plans that include specific measures against honour-based violence. These plans aim to:

Prevent and combat honour-based violence through education, information and cooperation between authorities
Strengthen the rights and protection of vulnerable individuals, including by offering sheltered accommodation and support
Develop and implement guidelines for how authorities, schools and healthcare services should handle cases of honour-based violence
Strengthen the judicial system’s handling of honour-based crimes through, for example, the criminalisation of forced marriage and female genital cutting.

Norway’s previous national action plan, Norway’s national action plan Freedom from Negative Social Control and Honour-Based Violence, was adopted for the period 2021–2024. It is a key policy document that presents new measures against negative social control and honour-based violence, and the division of responsibilities between different authorities. The action plan is the result of collaboration between seven ministries and other authorities and voluntary organisations. The Ministry of Labour and Social Inclusion has overall responsibility for coordinating the implementation of the action plan and is working with the other seven ministries to implement the measures proposed in the action plan. The action plan specifies which ministry is primarily responsible for implementing each specific measure. The report is a follow-up to the previous action plan against negative social control, forced marriage and female genital cutting (2017–2020) Retten til å bestemme over eget liv (The right to decide over one’s own life).

The action plan presents 33 measures divided into five different areas. Examples of measures:

Measures aimed at newly arrived migrants
Work against honour-based violence falls under the area of integration. According to the action plan, educational efforts for new arrivals should be strengthened. These educational programmes include information about rights, laws and regulations that apply in Norway, Norwegian values and culture. They also include mandatory counselling for parents and prospective parents.
The new measures aim, among other things, to increase awareness of negative social control, honour-based violence and the situation of LGBTI people among those who come into contact with new arrivals. A system for following up on new arrivals who have been subjected to negative social control, honour-based violence and violence in close relationships will be developed.
Knowledge and competence
Measures in this area involve improving the skills of professionals in various sectors (healthcare, education, the judiciary) and better coordination of work between different authorities, sectors and levels. Among other things, it is pointed out that networking and information exchange between national and regional actors must be further developed.
Strengthened legal protections
Legal protections cover issues that fall under Norway’s international human rights commitments, whether Norway is fulfilling its commitments and what legislative changes are needed to guarantee the protection of victims of violence. Legislative changes to the Norwegian Penal Code, the Passport Act, the Immigration Act and the Marriage Act are mentioned. One of the measures involves a comprehensive legal investigation of the current regulations and an assessment of whether the regulations are sufficient and consistent with Norway’s human rights commitments.
Prevention of involuntary stays abroad
Measures in this area aim to strengthen Norway’s efforts to combat involuntary stays abroad by increasing the competence of, for example, school staff, developing cooperation between central support agencies and the police, and also Nordic cooperation. In 2022, a new reform (Barnevernsreformen) came into force. It requires municipalities to strengthen previous interventions tailored to the needs of children and families to prevent involuntary stays abroad.
International cooperation
International cooperation focuses primarily on cooperation with other Nordic countries. The measures proposed include strengthening cooperation and the exchange of experiences in the Nordic region and creating a Nordic network for professionals. Since the transnational nature of honour-based violence is an important dimension, Nordic cooperation can improve the opportunities to address this challenge.

In addition to the action plan against negative social control and honour-based violence, there are specific action plans for related areas. These include action plans against violence in close relationships, violence against children and integration.

Main actors, tasks and initiatives

Norway has established specialised units and centres of expertise that focus on gathering knowledge and developing expertise in the field of honour-based violence. These centres also serve as resource centres for professionals working with these issues. The Kompetanseteamet mot negativ og sosial kontroll og æresrelatert vold (the Competence Team against Negative and Social Control and Honour-based Violence) was established in 2004. The Competence Team consists of representatives from Bufdir, the Directorate of Integration and Diversity, the Directorate of Immigration, the Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training, the National Police Directorate, the Directorate of Labour and Social Inclusion and the Norwegian Directorate of Health. It is a national cross-sectoral team coordinated by Bufdir that works to prevent and detect forced marriage, honour-based violence, negative social control and female genital cutting, as well as to provide support and assistance to victims of violence.

The competence team offers advice and guidance to authorities and voluntary organisations that encounter people exposed to violence in their work. The team also provides guidance to people exposed to violence who contact them and, if necessary, puts them in touch with relevant authorities.

The competence team’s mandate includes providing advice to both victims of violence and professionals, skills development, knowledge development, coordination and allocation of places in national shelters and support accommodation, counselling, cooperation with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in cases of abduction abroad, and cooperation with voluntary organisations.

Training and skills development comprise a significant part of its responsibilities. The team offers skills development with a focus on negative social control and honour-based violence and helps with guidance in individual cases. Experts from the competence team act as experts at the Child Welfare Tribunal and in court cases. They have also provided input on ongoing research projects, investigations and reports (e.g. Opptrappingsplan mot vold og overgrep mot barn og vold i nære relasjoner; Action plan against violence and abuse against children and violence in close relationships).

Efforts to combat honour-based violence and oppression are included in Norway’s integration policy. As mentioned earlier, the prevention of negative social control was included in the government’s integration strategy for 2019–2022. The Directorate of Integration and Diversity (IMDi) is responsible for implementing Norwegian integration policy. This includes implementing and following up on measures based on the government’s action plan against negative social control and honour-based violence. In addition, there are special envoys for integration issues at foreign missions in Ankara, Amman, Islamabad and Nairobi. They provide consular assistance to people who are subjected to negative social control, honour-based violence, forced marriage and female genital cutting. They also help to raise the competence of public sector employees in Norway by providing advice and guidance in individual cases and through ongoing competence-building measures.

IMDi has created a special internet resource with stories about exposure to negative social control and information about who to contact for help and support. Nora provides information to young people and those closest to them, as well as tips and guidance for those who encounter young people at risk of exposure to negative social control and honour-based violence.

Diversity advisors are another example of concrete measures aimed at children and young people. These advisors work in certain upper secondary schools and adult education centres and their task is to support young people living in honour contexts. In a national action plan against forced marriage and negative social control in 2008, minority advisors were one of the measures included.

Diversity advisors are employed by the IMDi. Diversity advisors are expected to maintain close contact with students, parents, teachers, other advisors, healthcare providers and after-school centres. They serve as a resource for expertise and knowledge in schools, both for school staff and students, as well as supporting vulnerable students, maintaining contact with parents and contributing to closer cooperation between schools and other authorities.

Diversity advisors are intended to operate as a combined individual and system-oriented measure. They conduct individual follow-ups with students and at the same time work to raise the competence of school staff. In their guidance and follow-up of individual cases, the diversity advisors use various interview and study methods. They also maintain contact with other authorities if there is a risk that a child will be taken out of the country against their will.

IMDi also has a professional team dedicated to preventing negative social control and honour-based violence. The professional team mainly targets employees at schools without diversity advisors, employees in adult education and refugee services. In addition to providing skills development to the target groups on how to prevent, identify and follow up on people who are subjected to negative social control, honour-based violence, forced marriage and female genital cutting, the professional team helps to raise awareness of other services in the area.

Regionalt resurscenter om vold, traumatisk stress og selvmordsförebyggning (Regional Resource Centre on Violence, Traumatic Stress and Suicide Prevention, RVTS) are regional resource centres that support, educate and assist professionals who encounter people affected by violence and sexual abuse, traumatic stress, migration or suicidal thoughts in their work. They have cutting-edge expertise in issues relating to the prevention of self-harm and suicide. The main goal is to promote health and quality of life for those affected. RVTS offers skills development through teaching, guidance, consultation and networking across sectors, authorities and administrative levels.

There are five resource centres in Norway covering the entire country. RVTS East in Oslo has cutting-edge expertise in areas such as violence in close relationships, genital mutilation, forced marriage and serious restrictions on the freedom of children and young people. RVTS East runs an online information portal for professionals who work with and encounter children and young people who are exposed to or at risk of honour-based violence and oppression, forced marriage and female genital cutting.

Bo- og støttetilbudet (sheltered and supported housing) is an organisation established in collaboration between Bufdir and five selected municipalities, coordinated by Bufdir’s competence team. The municipalities receive grants from Bufdir to run shelters and support housing. Shelters and support housing are a national service established to provide support to people exposed to forced marriage, honour-based violence and negative social control. People who are subjected to psychological violence and need to get away from their abusers can also access the housing and support service in person without notice. Women, men, couples and parents with children can all access the shelter and support accommodation.

Examples of voluntary organisations

Authorities at both national and local level work together with voluntary organisations to prevent and deal with honour-based violence, including providing sheltered accommodation, counselling and support, as well as education and information. For example, the Red Cross telephone helpline for negative social control and honour-based violence has extensive experience in supporting people who are subjected to negative social control, honour-based violence, forced marriage and female genital cutting. The Red Cross works by offering telephone calls and chat services staffed by counsellors. They are aimed at those subjected to negative social control in various contexts, such as honour-based violence and within religious communities.

In their annual report, they describe one of their areas of work as building bridges between individuals exposed to violence and welfare institutions. Some members of the target group experience challenges in their contact with authorities, and the Red Cross telephone service provides support. They also offer follow-ups through guidance and advice at physical meetings for people who move out of national shelters and support housing and those who come into direct contact with the Red Cross.

The Red Cross also offers a special mentoring programme (mentor family) for people over the age of 18 who have been subjected to negative social control, forced marriage or other forms of honour-based violence. Mentor families offer a positive respite from everyday life where young people can feel a sense of belonging, share everyday experiences and feel supported and secure. The Red Cross mentor family programme is available in the following municipalities: Bergen, Kristiansand, Oslo, Tromsø and Trondheim.

The competence team against negative social control and honour-based violence collaborates with the organisation Hjelpekilden. It offers help to people with backgrounds in closed or strict religious environments. Hjelpekilden works with peer support for people in processes of change, counselling and competence development, information campaigns and dialogue with religious communities.

Identified challenges

In Norway, work against honour-based violence is characterised by a high level of cross-sectoral cooperation, which poses challenges for coordination. Eight different ministries are involved, with the Ministry of Labour and Inclusion acting as coordinator. The previous national action plan for 2021–2024 highlighted the need to improve coordination. Another area highlighted in the action plan is knowledge about negative social control in contexts other than migration. These contexts include closed religious environments. Guidance and guidelines on security-based work are also described as insufficient. Knowledge and competence are one of the areas in the action plan.

An important issue raised in the strategic documents (e.g. the action plan and annual report from Bufdir) concerns vulnerability to multiple discrimination and minority stress that can be caused by exclusion and hostility directed at ethnic minorities. This requires not only knowledge of negative social control and honour-based violence but also awareness and knowledge of experiences of racism and discrimination, social exclusion and isolation to which ethnic minorities are exposed.

Furthermore, a lack of trust in the state among minority groups is mentioned. Combined with ambivalence experienced by victims of violence – on the one hand needing to seek help and on the other feeling strong loyalty to their families and perpetrators – there is a risk that victims of violence will refrain from seeking support and help. A lack of trust in authorities and social institutions can also prevent perpetrators of violence from seeking help, thereby hindering efforts to bring about change. The Red Cross’s description of its role as a bridge builder between victims of violence and welfare/social institutions also confirms this challenge in terms of contact with authorities.

Bufdir’s annual report (2023) included an evaluation of the competence team working on negative social control and honour-based violence. It highlighted a lack of resources within the competence team as an additional challenge, largely a result of the increase in the number of cases the team is working on. The report showed a doubling in the number of cases from 2013 to 2021.

Conclusions and comments

In summary, efforts to combat honour-based violence in Norway are carried out in cooperation between several ministries and coordinated at the national level. There is a special action plan in place to combat negative social control and honour-based violence with five focus areas, 33 measures and a division of responsibilities between various actors.

Honour-based violence is presented and discussed from several different perspectives that may overlap but also exist at different levels. According to the 2020 study, honour-based violence is understood as a part of integration at the strategic level. Such a problem description is based on a certain understanding of the causes of violence, as well as who the victims and perpetrators of violence are, which also forms the basis for the solutions that are proposed. Violence is related to challenges associated with migration (for example, parenting in a migration context is discussed in terms of the boundaries between strict control and negative social control, generational conflicts and challenges associated with moving and living in a new country). The transnational dimension is also emphasised.

There are explicit references to ethnic minorities, people born in Norway or abroad and new arrivals. When violence is understood as occurring among ethnic minorities, prevention efforts focus primarily on integration. Teaching about Norwegian culture and values becomes an important part of integration. It is emphasised that the harmful practices involved in honour-based violence are not acceptable in Norway. These practices are presented as serious violations of human rights.

On a practical level, honour-based violence is interpreted as a type of violence in close relationships and violence against children. The 2023 action plan describes honour-based violence, forced marriage, female genital cutting and involuntary stays abroad as belonging to a field of violence that must be prevented and combatted in line with other violence in close relationships and violence against children.

In conclusion, it can be said that the concept of negative social control is the one most frequently referenced in the Norwegian context. One possible explanation for this is that, unlike other forms of violence, negative social control is specific to honour-based violence and distinguishes it from violence in other contexts. Previously, the focus was on forced marriage, but this was considered too narrow. The concept of negative social control is broader and is defined in line with various forms of systematic control.

Sweden

Concepts and their usage

In the Swedish context, the concept of ‘honour-based violence and oppression’ is well established. However, the understanding of what constitutes honour-based violence and oppression varies and no uniform definition is established. The interpretation and application of the definition differ between actors. In previous action programmes, honour-based violence and oppression was defined as follows: “Honour-based violence and oppression means that people, mainly girls and women but also boys and men and LGBTI people, are restricted in their lives and subjected to pressure and violence aimed at maintaining the family’s control over the individual.” The government’s action programme for 2024–2026 describes honour-based violence and oppression as a serious social problem and a violation of the human rights of those affected, most often girls and women, but also boys and men.

The bill that preceded the introduction of specified honour crimes into the Swedish Criminal Code describes honour-based violence and oppression as linked to honour norms based on strong patriarchal or heteronormative ideas. Honour norms also include patriarchal ideas that show up in control exercised over girls and women, ranging from everyday restrictions on what they wear, who they spend time with and how they move around, to limits on their choices with regard to education, work, marriage and divorce. In their most extreme form, honour norms can lead to serious crimes such as threats and acts of violence, including lethal violence.

Honour-based violence and oppression are presented as a priority area for the government’s work to tackle men’s violence against women. The national strategy to prevent and counteract men’s violence against women describes honour-based violence and oppression as having a variety of expressions, such as female genital cutting and forced marriage (Skr. 2016/17:10). The government’s action programme for 2024–2026 identifies some specific forms of honour-based violence: female genital cutting of girls and women, attempts to convert young LGBTI people, forced marriage, virginity checks and virginity operations, and involuntary stays abroad.

On 1 July 2022, the new offence of a specified honour crime was added to the Swedish Criminal Code (Chapter 4, 4a §). The provision contains a particularly severe scale of penalties for anyone who repeatedly commits certain criminal acts against a person on the grounds of honour, with each act constituting part of an ongoing violation of a person’s integrity intended to seriously damage their self-esteem. Previously, on 1 July 2020, a new provision was introduced requiring the consideration of special aggravating circumstances when assessing the severity of a crime; one such aggravating circumstance is if a crime is motivated by a desire to preserve or restore the honour of a person or family, relatives or other similar group (Chapter 29, 2 § 10 Swedish Criminal Code).

Work against honour-based violence and oppression

The work against honour-based violence and oppression in Sweden is a priority issue involving several actors at the national, regional and local level.

Work at the strategic level

Myndigheter under regering	Ministry of Employment
Actors at the national level	Swedish Gender Equality Agency National Centre against Honour-based Violence and Oppression, The County Administrative Board of Östergötland National Centre for Knowledge on Men’s Violence Against Women, Uppsala University Barnafrid – National centre for knowledge concerning violence against children at Linköping University Ombudsman for Children Swedish Agency for Youth and Civil Society The Family Law and Parental Support Authority National Board of Health and Welfare National Agency for Education, Swedish School Inspectorate Swedish Migration Agency Swedish Police Authority, Swedish Prosecution Authority, Swedish Prison and Probation Service, Swedish Crime Victim Authority, Swedish National Council for Crime Prevention
Strategic steering documents	Action plan to counter and combat men’s violence against women 2016–2027 Action programme to prevent and combat men’s violence against women, domestic violence, honour-based violence and oppression, and prostitution and human trafficking for the period 2024–2026

In 2016, a ten-year action plan to counter and combat men’s violence against women for the period 2016–2027 was adopted. The strategy addresses issues and problems relating to men’s violence against women. It states that the strategy is part of gender equality policy and that men’s violence against women is one of the most extreme expressions of gender inequality. The strategy includes issues relating to honour-based violence and oppression, as well as prostitution and human trafficking for sexual purposes.

According to the action plan, men’s violence against women accounts for the majority of violence that occurs in close relationships, as well as honour-based violence and oppression. Some aspects of honour-based violence and oppression are not included in violence in close relationships, as this violence is sometimes perpetrated by a collective, both men and women, rather than just by an individual partner: “There are also parts of honour-based violence and oppression that are not included in violence in close relationships, as this violence can be perpetrated by a large collective, both men and women, rather than just by an individual partner.” Violence against women, honour-based violence and oppression are caused by inequality and gender power relations.

The action plan identifies honour norms as a contributing factor to specific vulnerabilities. Honour norms are described as a perspective that sees a family’s reputation and standing as dependent on the chastity and virginity of female family members and their actual and alleged behaviour with respect to these ideals. Honour norms require women and girls to be controlled, ranging from restrictions on everyday life and socialising to physical freedom of movement. Young men can also be subject to such control and restrictions.

The action plan emphasises that there is a risk that “honour-based thinking is underestimated and misunderstood by people who do not live by honour norms”. Therefore, emphasis should be placed on the significance of honour norms for both perpetrators and victims of violence. The strategy also proposes that preventive work against honour norms should cover all young people in different groups and residential areas. Increased segregation is mentioned as one of the factors that can lead to the reinforcement of honour norms in economically disadvantaged areas. The promotion of gender equality and the prevention of honour norms should therefore be included in the government’s long-term reform programme for reducing segregation.

The political objectives of the strategy consist of expanded and effective preventive work against violence, improved detection of violence and stronger protection and support for women and children exposed to violence, more effective crime prevention and improved knowledge and method development. According to the action plan, the government shall annually establish action programmes for future initiatives. Action programmes are a form of government action plan that present political priorities and descriptions of focus areas and measures.

In June 2024, the Government of Sweden presented its new action programme, Free and Safe without Violence and Oppression: Action programme to prevent and combat men’s violence against women, domestic violence, honour-based violence and oppression, and prostitution and human trafficking for the period 2024–2026. The programme presents 132 measures with six objectives. These objectives are in line with the objectives of the national action plan and include an additional objective: a long-term and sustainable structure in relation to support, organisation and monitoring. The action programme is a steering document that contains concrete measures for the implementation of strategic objectives in relation to honour-based violence and oppression. Analysis of the action programme together with the national action plan has been central to addressing the research questions in this study, although other documents have also been incorporated.

Four areas for development have been identified in the action programme, two of which are particularly relevant to the work against honour-based violence and oppression. The first is related to Development Area II: Intensified action against honour-based violence and oppression. Efforts will be intensified through improved long-term governance, better support and protection for those who are vulnerable regardless of where they live in the country, stricter legislation against honour-based violence and oppression and increased knowledge and methodological development. Among the measures proposed, a number of priorities can be observed: strengthening the role of the school system in combating honour-based violence and oppression as part of preventive work, combating crime through criminalisation and tougher penalties for honour-based crimes and increasing knowledge about honour-based violence and oppression.

The second area related to work against honour-based violence and oppression is Development Area III: Enhanced support to children and young people who experience violence, including children taken abroad in honour-based contexts. This includes preventing and stopping harmful stays abroad in honour contexts, support for parents in honour contexts, support for particularly vulnerable groups of children and young people (e.g. children with disabilities and addiction problems), prevention and combating of honour-based violence, oppression and violence in young people’s relationships and stricter legislation to combat violence against children and young people.

Preventive work and early intervention emphasise the role of schools but also the need for information campaigns targeting asylum seekers and new arrivals, as well as support for parents in honour-based contexts. The introduction of a national reporting and monitoring system and better national statistics on missing and abducted children has been proposed as part of preventive work against involuntary stays abroad. Social services should also work to stop honour-based violence and oppression when placing children in foster care and look into how siblings are affected in cases of honour-based violence and oppression. One of the measures involves providing support to parents in honour contexts to avoid inequality and negative consequences for children and young people. Supportive measures are intended to offer alternatives to repressive upbringing. Measures to raise awareness involve several sectors: healthcare, social services, education and the judicial system. Knowledge about experiences of specific honour crimes linked to stays abroad and the regulations surrounding travel bans is highlighted in particular.

Several inquiries into efforts to combat honour-based violence and oppression have been appointed. The Government of Sweden has appointed an inquiry into an inclusive gender equality policy sub-goal against violence, which will, among other things, provide proposals on how long-term governance in the area of honour-based violence and oppression can be strengthened. The government has announced that a new sub-goal on honour-based violence and oppression will be introduced, despite the fact that an investigation concluded that a separate sub-goal for honour-based violence and oppression should not be introduced.

The Government also intends to appoint a commission to investigate ways of strengthening the role of the school system in combating honour-based violence and oppression in young people’s relationships. It has also appointed a commission to investigate ways of improving student health, and the final report has been submitted.

The report on the Prohibition of marriage between cousins and certain other close relatives (DS 2024:20) proposes, among other things, that marriages between cousins be prohibited. The memorandum has been referred for consultation and is being prepared within the Government Offices.

Main actors, tasks and initiatives

The Swedish Gender Equality Agency is tasked with monitoring the implementation of the Action plan to counter and combat men’s violence against women. According to its instructions, it has a special responsibility for coordinating efforts between different authorities to combat honour-based violence and oppression. The Gender Equality Authority’s remit includes mapping and disseminating knowledge about experiences of specified honour crimes and other violence and oppression linked to stays abroad; to work on developing working methods and approaches for preventive work against female genital cutting; and to compile, disseminate and develop effective working methods for violence prevention work with young men and boys in the context of honour-based violence.

According to the action plan, the Swedish Gender Equality Agency is “mandated to undertake tasks to highlight and combat honour-based violence and oppression, with a focus on national knowledge development and cross-cutting strategic issues. The Agency shall also promote the development of preventive measures against honour-based violence and oppression.”

In 2024 and 2025, the Swedish Gender Equality Agency received and reported on several assignments related to the work against honour-based violence and oppression, including conducting a knowledge and research review on honour-based violence and oppression from an international perspective and implementing skills enhancement measures; mapping and analysing the prevalence of child marriage, forced marriage and polygamy in Sweden, as well as other related issues; disseminating knowledge about experiences of specified honour crimes and other violence and oppression linked to stays abroad; and coordinating efforts to prevent and combat female genital cutting.

The National Centre against Honour-based Violence and Oppression (NCH; previously the National Competence Centre for Honour-based Violence and Oppression) was established in October 2022 and is based at the Östergötland County Administrative Board. The centre is organised into two units: the support and collaboration unit and the investigation and analysis unit. NCH works on behalf of the government to support and contribute to strategic, preventive and knowledge-based work against honour-based violence and oppression at the national, regional and local levels. Among other things, NCH supports municipalities and regions in their work to introduce, monitor and evaluate working methods and approaches for supporting vulnerable individuals and for preventive work against honour-based violence and oppression. NCH also provides general support to professionals who deal with issues of honour-based violence and oppression in their work. NCH’s national mandate will be transferred to the Swedish Gender Equality Agency from 1 January 2026.

NCH shall ensure that there is a special national helpline (telephone and chat) to which individuals who are exposed to or at risk of honour-based violence and oppression can turn for general advice and guidance. This helpline is now available via the National Centre for Knowledge on Men’s Violence Against Women. Since 2018, the County Administrative Board of Östergötland (as of 2022 NCH) has been tasked with supporting the development of regional, municipal and inter-agency resource centres for children, young people and adults who are exposed to or at risk of honour-based violence and oppression. The resource centre involves the co-location of social services, health and medical care, and the police with multilingual expertise to facilitate support and protection. The purpose of regional resource centres is to ensure that children and adults who are or are at risk of being subjected to honour-based violence and oppression have equal access to specialised and adapted support regardless of where they live in the country. The resource centres are intended to complement existing protection and support structures and not to take over the tasks of authorities.

Each county administrative board has a coordinating role in work against men’s violence against women, violence in close relationships, sexual violence, honour-based violence and oppression, as well as prostitution and human trafficking. The coordination role includes responsibility for supporting regional cooperation, developing and implementing strategies and action plans and providing support for the introduction of effective working methods, training and skills development in the county.

There are currently sixteen resource centres across fifteen municipalities. Some resource centres are funded by the government initiative, but not all. Origo is a resource centre to tackle specified honour crimes and violence, run in collaboration between the municipalities in Stockholm County, Police Region Stockholm and Region Stockholm. It has partly served as a model for the government’s resource centre initiative but is not funded by the government. Professionals from various authorities, counsellors, police officers and midwives work together to offer support and advice. Origo offers support and counselling to young people by telephone or in person and acts as a ‘gateway’, providing information about other authorities or services that young people or professionals may need to contact. Origo offers consultative support and guidance to professionals in areas such as the police, schools and leisure, social services, health and medical care, and to voluntary organisations. Origo also offers training days and theme days on specified honour crimes and violence for professionals and voluntary organisations. The work is aimed at young people aged 13 to 26 who live in Stockholm County and are exposed to honour-based violence and oppression.

National Centre for Knowledge on Men’s Violence Against Women (NCK) has been tasked by the government with raising awareness nationally about honour-based violence and oppression. This is being done through university courses at basic and advanced levels, as well as commissioned education. Furthermore, NCK has been tasked by the government with providing support to victims of violence and operates national helplines: the National Women’s Helpline, the Support Line for Men, the Support Line for Transgender People and Rätt att välja (Right to Choose), a national helpline for victims of control, threats and violence in the name of honour. NCK also runs Sweden’s first specialist clinic for women who have been subjected to violence – Kvinnofridsmottagningen at Uppsala University Hospital.

Barnafrid – the National centre for knowledge concerning violence against children at Linköping University – collects and disseminates knowledge about violence and abuse against children to professionals who encounter or make decisions concerning children and young people in their work. They are tasked with implementing skills-enhancement initiatives on honour-based violence and oppression for children’s homes in the country.

The Swedish Agency for Youth and Civil Society (MUCF) has special responsibility for youth policy and civil society policy. MUCF’s work includes distributing government grants on behalf of the government to enables organisations to carry out their activities. MUCF is one of the government’s LGBTQI strategic authorities. This means that it must promote equal rights and opportunities for young people regardless of sexual orientation, gender identity or gender expression. In relation to the work against honour-based violence and oppression, MUCF has been tasked with developing and disseminating knowledge with a focus on honour-based violence and oppression and violence prevention work aimed at youth leaders and other professionals who work to provide leisure activities for young people. MUCF is also tasked with carrying out information campaigns on honour-based violence and oppression aimed at professionals and other adults who encounter newly arrived migrants and young asylum seekers in their work or voluntary activities. MUCF shall also conduct an in-depth analysis of the need for support measures regarding honour-based violence and oppression, including exposure to so-called conversion attempts against young LGBTI people. The agency shall pay particular attention to situations where young people are subjected to threats or coercion, as well as to the fact that children and young people themselves need information about conversion attempts and the support available in such situations.

The action plan assigns an important role to the school system, particularly when it comes to preventive work. The systematic work of preschools and schools to combat honour-based violence and oppression is to be reviewed and strengthened. The Swedish School Inspectorate has been tasked with reviewing schools’ work to prevent and address intolerance, oppression and violence, including racism, sexism, homophobia and transphobia, as well as honour-based violence and oppression. Other measures implemented by the Government include improvements in student health for students exposed to honour-based violence, among others, and an investigation into strengthening the role of the school system in combating honour-based violence and oppression. The Public Health Agency of Sweden and the Swedish National Agency for Education have been tasked with updating support materials for teaching in the areas of sexuality, consent and relationships.

The Family Law and Parental Support Authority (MFoF) is a government agency that provides knowledge to ensure that all children have a secure upbringing and good relationships with their parents. MFoF is the knowledge authority for parenting support, family counselling and family law cases handled by Social Services Committees. MFoF’s mission includes identifying and developing working methods and approaches for parenting support aimed at preventing honour-based violence and oppression, as well as developing a model for how coordination between parenting support initiatives aimed at parents in an honour context should be developed to best reach the target group. According to its mission, MFoF shall promote the development of violence prevention work through support for parents focused on families in an honour context. MFoF shall gather knowledge from research and practice and develop working methods and approaches within parenting support that are deemed to be preventive with regard to honour-based violence.

The National Board of Health and Welfare is a knowledge authority for healthcare and social care. The National Board of Health and Welfare collaborates with other authorities and offers expert advice to guide, support and develop healthcare and social services. The National Board of Health and Welfare’s mission includes working to improve support for victims of violence, children who have witnessed violence and victims of crime and their relatives, including honour-based violence and oppression. It has developed online training courses on honour-based violence and oppression designed for healthcare and social services, for example. The National Board of Health and Welfare also provides support in the application of its regulations and general guidelines on violence in close relationships and other regulations applicable to social services, healthcare and dental care in work related to violence in close relationships, including honour-based violence and oppression.

In 2024, the National Board of Health and Welfare was tasked with strengthening systematic monitoring of interventions for individuals exposed to honour-based violence and oppression within social services. It shall also review, adapt and supplement knowledge support for work against violence in close relationships so that it can be fully utilised in work against honour-based violence and oppression. The assignment also includes support for social services in preventing children from being exposed to honour-based violence and oppression in network placements. The National Board of Health and Welfare shall gather data on the possibilities of producing national statistics on missing and abducted children in honour contexts within the activities of social services. It shall also investigate the prerequisites for ensuring the assessment support it has developed for social services’ work with children and young people suspected of being exposed to honour-based violence and oppression can be used for persons over the age of 18. The National Board of Health and Welfare shall continue its work to prevent and combat female genital cutting of girls and women. The National Board of Health and Welfare is also tasked with supporting municipalities and regions in their work to establish and organise family centres. The National Board of Health and Welfare shall contribute in particular to support in areas where social exclusion is high. Through this assignment, it shall contribute knowledge support to prevent and increase the detection of violence and support equal parenting.

At the municipal level, social services are responsible for supporting victims of crime (Chapter 13, 1 § Social Services Act, 2025:400). Special attention is given to people currently or previously subjected to honour-based violence or oppression. If it becomes apparent during contact with social services that a person is exposed to violence, the Social Services Committee has a responsibility to carry out risk assessments and ensure that the person receives the support and assistance they need. The Social Services Committee’s investigation must assess the victim’s need for support and assistance and offer appropriate safeguards, such as sheltered accommodation, counselling or financial assistance. Social services also have a far-reaching responsibility to investigate the situation of children and young people when violence is suspected. If a child is suffering harm or is at risk of suffering harm, the Social Services Committee may assess that the child must be protected through a placement outside the home. As of 1 August 2021, the Social Services Committee’s responsibilities also include working to ensure that individuals who subject or have subjected people close to them to violence or other abuse change their behaviour. The change in the law means an increased focus on perpetrators of violence, with the aim of them stopping their violent behaviour. This means that social services have a new responsibility – working to prevent recidivism.

Since 2019, the Swedish Migration Agency has been working on behalf of the Government together with the Swedish Public Employment Service, the Swedish Social Insurance Agency, the National Board of Health and Welfare and the Swedish Gender Equality Agency to prevent and detect violence. The Migration Agency’s tasks include providing information about what violence is and referring cases where necessary. The Migration Agency also organises compulsory social introduction courses for asylum seekers and foreigners who have residence permits with temporary protection. The introduction includes information about gender equality and honour-based violence and oppression, including the prohibition of polygamy, female genital cutting and child marriage. Please note that there are proposals to expand the social introduction course, and a decision may be made.

Municipalities shall ensure that newly arrived migrants are offered social orientation in accordance with Act 2013:156 on social orientation for certain newly arrived immigrants. The social orientation course must comprise at least 100 hours and aims to facilitate establishment in working and social life by providing a basic understanding of Swedish society and a foundation for continued learning. Social orientation shall provide knowledge about human rights, fundamental democratic values, individual rights and obligations, how Swedish society is organised, and practical everyday life.

Since 2018, the Family Conflict Section has been part of the Consular and Civil Law Department at the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. The section handles consular matters relating to family-based coercion. It was established to further strengthen consular support in the area of family conflict, with a particular focus on child and forced marriages.

The Delegation Against Segregation (Delmos) was established in 2017 with the mission of helping to increase the long-term effects of efforts to reduce and counteract social and economic segregation at the national, regional and local levels, to lift socially disadvantaged areas and to break structural segregation mechanisms. In 2021, Delmos was commissioned to analyse and describe the consequences of socio-economic segregation with regard to the preservation of traditions and customs that lead to honour-based violence and oppression and undermine gender equality, which resulted in one published report. However, the assignment was not completed, as Delmos was shut down in 2023.

In 2024, the Swedish Parliament decided on a new overall goal for integration policy with five sub-goals. These sub-goals concern economic, linguistic, democratic, social and cultural integration, as well as education. Through the sub-goal for social and cultural integration, the Government clarifies that society’s fundamental norms and values need to be established and adhered to by everyone who lives in Sweden and conditions that limit opportunities to live a free, dignified and independent life must be reduced. As the sub-goal is difficult to monitor with register data, the Government has decided to commission Statistics Sweden to conduct a sample study with the aim of increasing knowledge about differences in needs, values and conditions among the foreign-born population compared with people born in Sweden.

Examples of voluntary organisations

There are several voluntary organisations working against honour-based violence and oppression in Sweden. Terrafem is a non-profit national organisation that works for the rights of women and girls, with a particular focus on women of foreign origin. Terrafem provides support and legal advice to women of foreign origin who are victims of violence at its women’s shelter, women’s emergency centre and temporary accommodation. Terrafem offers training to women who want to work on a voluntary basis in the emergency services and in Terrafem’s advocacy and prevention work. Glöm Aldrig Pela och Fadime (GAPF) is a non-profit association that works to provide support to victims of violence through a support hotline and other support initiatives. The organisation also conducts training activities and works to raise awareness. Shanazi Heroes is a non-profit organisation that offers training initiatives to prevent and foster greater understanding in society about honour-based violence and oppression. They offer training to staff in healthcare, social services, the judiciary, the police, politicians, non-profit organisations and to students and staff in schools.

Identified challenges

In Sweden, issues relating to work and efforts to combat child abduction and involuntary stays abroad receive a great deal of attention and are included in several of the development areas in the action programme for 2024–2026. The Ministry for Foreign Affairs and selected embassies work specifically with situations involving abduction and involuntary stays abroad. The National Centre against Honour-based Violence and Oppression (NCH) at the County Administrative Board of Östergötland also provides support to professionals but responsibility for operational work lies primarily with individual municipalities.

The National Board of Health and Welfare and Barnafrid also have a mandate to disseminate information about the new extended ban on involuntary trips abroad. However, experiences vary among municipalities. Cases tend to be complex and resource intensive, and it can therefore be challenging for some municipalities to handle such cases.

Another problem area mentioned in connection with honour-based violence and oppression is segregation. Both the national strategy and the action programme for 2021–2023 identify segregation as a factor that can lead to the reinforcement of honour norms. Previous research has also identified segregation as an important risk factor. The term ‘segregation’ is not used in the 2024–2026 action programme. Instead, the term ‘exclusion’ was introduced to describe this policy area. In the action programme, exclusion is mentioned twice in connection with measures to establish and further develop family centres.

Conclusions

Although understanding and use of the concept of ‘honour-based violence and oppression’ may vary, the concept is well established and is used in both national steering documents and by key actors. In the key steering documents, honour-based violence and oppression are referred to as a form of men’s violence against women but it is stated that women can also be the perpetrators of violence and control and men and LGBTI people can be victims of violence.

The steering documents also use terms such as ‘honour norms’, ‘honour thinking’ and ‘honour contexts’. These terms are used without definition and their use is very broad, which gives the impression that the meanings of the terms are implied. It is debatable what the intended meanings of these terms are in the context and whether they are implicitly associated with people with foreign backgrounds. This creates space for varied interpretations and, as a consequence, increases the risk of arbitrary assessments.

The development and implementation of separate measures and initiatives specifically targeting honour-based violence and oppression indicate that this form of violence is understood as distinct from other forms of gender-based violence. Honour-based violence and oppression are mentioned as part of the integration policy sub-goal on social and cultural integration and can therefore be interpreted as both a gender equality and integration problem. Several measures concern social introduction with a focus on gender equality and human rights and support for parents who offer an alternative to a repressive upbringing.

In conclusion, efforts to combat honour-based violence in Sweden, as in other countries, are characterised by a high degree of changeability. Several measures in the action programme for 2024–2026 have been implemented across a number of different areas, such as the judicial system, the school system and social services. With the introduction of a new gender equality policy sub-goal to prevent and combat honour-based violence and oppression, the organisation of the work will change. The Swedish Gender Equality Agency already has several government assignments related to honour-based violence and oppression and its role is to be further strengthened.

Autonomous territories: The Faroe Islands, Greenland and Åland

The Faroe Islands

Honour-based violence and oppression are not identified as a specific policy area in the Faroe Islands. The National Action Plan on Violence in Close Relationships 2023–2028 is the result of extensive work carried out in 2022–2023, the purpose of which was to describe how work against violence is organised and identify knowledge gaps with regard to violence. This was conducted through mapping and talking to authorities, associations and other public and private actors in the field of violence.

The action plan focuses on five main areas: preventive work, support for victims of violence, measures aimed at professionals, measures to facilitate access to support in connection with exposure to violence and measures to promote scientific research in the field of violence.

Greenland

There are no specific steering documents, strategies or regulatory letters in the area of honour-based violence and oppression in Greenland. Nor are there any statistics on cases of honour-based violence. As in Åland and the Faroe Islands, there is a national action plan against violence in close relationships: Action plan against violence in close relationships 2023–2027, but like in the Faroe Islands, there are no specific regulations concerning honour-based violence and abuse.

Åland

In Åland, efforts to combat honour-based violence and oppression are part of a broader attempt to combat men’s violence against women and promote gender equality. The Strategy for Zero Tolerance of Violence in Close Relationships 2020–2030 provides a definition of honour-based violence and oppression with reference to the report by the Swedish Association of Local Authorities and Regions Violence prevention work with men – A knowledge overview (2011). Honour-based violence and oppression are understood to be based on gender, power and sexuality and the cultural perceptions of these concepts. The control of girls’ and women’s sexuality is seen as central and strongly linked to the collective. Instead of honour norms and honour contexts, the term ‘honour thinking’ is used to describe perceptions of the importance of, for example, virginity and chastity, sexuality, gender identity and gender expression.

‘Violence in close relationships’ is used throughout the strategy as an umbrella term that covers both violence in close relationships and honour-based violence and oppression, including forced marriage, child marriage and female genital cutting. In addition, the term ‘particular vulnerability’ is introduced to highlight various vulnerability factors. The term ‘particular vulnerability’ is also used to highlight certain circumstances that can affect the vulnerability of individuals. These circumstances include, for example, ethnic background, disability, age, sexuality, gender identity and the norms of relatives regarding self-determination over sexuality and family formation (commonly referred to as ‘honour norms’).

The work against men’s violence against women is one of the government’s strategic priorities in its gender equality work. The Strategy for Zero Tolerance of Violence in Close Relationships 2020–2030 is part of the work of the Agenda for Gender Equality, which is to be followed up annually. The strategy is to be implemented through annual action programmes, which are to be monitored and evaluated. The Strategy for Zero Tolerance of Violence in Close Relationships 2020–2030 presents four over-arching focuses:

Expanded and effective preventive work against violence in close relationships
Improved detection of violence and stronger protection and support for women and children exposed to violence
More effective law enforcement with regard to violence in close relationships and men’s violence against women
Improved knowledge and method development in the area of men’s violence against women and violence in close relationships, particularly with regard to violence prevention, with a special focus on the link between masculinity and violence.

The strategy covers all forms of physical, psychological and sexual violence, as well as threats of violence, directed at women, children and men in close relationships, including honour-based violence and oppression, prostitution and human trafficking for sexual purposes.

Preventive work should be carried out on three levels: (1) early violence prevention, (2) selective violence prevention and (3) indicative violence prevention. The strategy put particular emphasis on early violence prevention and selective preventive work. The preventive work consists of several different aspects. Fundamentally, it is about challenging and changing perceptions of power and masculinity that justify violence and norms that restrict the self-determination of women and girls. The measures proposed include, for example, raising awareness of norms and values surrounding power and violence linked to masculinity and other power structures, also through an intersectional perspective. In addition to challenging norms, conditions for the early detection of victims and perpetrators of violence must be established.

Detection of violence, protection and support are included in area two, selective violence prevention. Asking about violence is an important part of this work. This in turn requires sufficient knowledge among professionals about how and when to ask the question and how to proceed. The proposed measures include raising awareness and visibility of violence in close relationships and consist of: a competence-based approach to ensuring custody, housing and access; strengthened protection and support for children who have witnessed or been subjected to violence; competence-enhancing measures for professionals; and the development of methods for detecting and helping people who live with limited freedom in an honour-based context. It is highlighted that knowledge about honour-based violence and oppression should be prioritised in activities that involve children and young people.

Knowledge and methodological development are included in area three, particularly in the field of violence prevention, and is linked to the three levels introduced initially: universal prevention (measures aimed at everyone), selective prevention (measures aimed at risk groups) and indicated prevention (measures aimed at those already affected). Violence prevention measures seem to overlap with preventive work, where a norm-conscious and gender-changing approach is central, i.e. with the aim of changing perceptions of gender and masculinity.

With regard to the more operational work in Åland, it should be noted that neither the Social Welfare Act nor the Health and Medical Care Act distinguishes between different types of violence. In other words, work to combat honour-based violence and oppression is included in work to combat violence in close relationships. However, the Åland police regard honour-based violence as something that occurs particularly among migrants. Honour-based violence is described as follows: “It is a form of violence that results from someone breaking community norms or the rules of individuals. In such cases, the purpose of the violence is to cleanse and restore tarnished honour.”

In Åland, honour-based violence is not defined as its own crime but may be classified as a form of unlawful threat, coercion, defamation, assault, persecution, human trafficking or a sexual offence. Female genital cutting may also be classified as serious assault. The police state that it is difficult to compile statistics and obtain an overall picture of the extent of honour-based violence. To gain a better understanding of the situation, the police introduced a classification code that makes it easier to compile statistics. Honour-based violence is brought to police attention through preventive work but also through reports from schools, social and health authorities and civil society organisations. Violence may also be revealed in connection with criminal investigations or through reports made by a victims’ contacts.

According to the police, honour-based violence has increased in Finland. They write:

“In recent years, honour-based violence has become more common in Finland. Finnish women have also been subjected to violence in relationships with men of foreign origin. Young people with migrant backgrounds who have grown up in Finland may be subjected to violence living under pressure from two different cultures.”

Identifying violence as honour-based is important in terms of the task of the police. In cases of domestic violence, for example, the police must be thorough, good at listening and able to establish an understanding of situations so that they can identify and intervene in case of violence. During investigations, the police may need to take account of other people involved, such as instigators or accomplices who may be implicated.

Problem description: policy areas and solutions

The problems surrounding honour-based violence and oppression are presented in different ways; these presentations can be understood by (1) identifying the policy areas to which the problem is assigned and (2) analysing the proposed solutions. In this section, these two approaches to interpreting the problem presentation will be outlined and related to each other. In developing an understanding, it is also important to consider how the work against honour-based violence is organised at the strategic and operational levels, and whether these are consistent with each other. Rambøll’s 2020 study showed that, at the strategic level, work against honour-based violence and oppression is assigned to one of three policy areas: violence against women, violence in close relationships or integration. The comparative analysis presented in this study confirms this division, although some countries, such as Norway, have organised the work through cross-sectoral cooperation between several different ministries.

Since the Nordic study in 2020, another area has been added: childrearing and violence against children. Violence against children is included in the concept of violence in close relationships, which tends to be understood and interpreted as violence between partners. This presents a risk of rendering children who are victims of violence invisible. Based on the different policy areas and how honour-based violence is treated in the analysed steering documents, the problem of honour-based violence is presented as either an integration problem, a parenting problem or a gender equality problem.

Policy areas

Honour-based violence as an integration problem

In Denmark and Norway, efforts to combat honour-based violence are included at the strategic level in integration policy. In Norway, the Directorate of Integration and Diversity (IMDi) has primary responsibility, and in Denmark it is the Agency for International Recruitment and Integration (SIRI). In Finland, honour-based violence is also associated with migrant groups, and according to the government programme, honour-based violence is included in Finland’s immigration and integration policy. According to the programme, integration requires new arrivals to learn Finnish and find employment but also to learn to follow the rules of society.

Jaana Vuori, professor of gender studies at the University of Eastern Finland in Joensuu, has analysed educational materials used in Finland to disseminate knowledge about Finnish society to new arrivals. In her study, Vuori shows how such educational materials are based on a generalised perception of migrants and migrant families that also reflects the view of gender equality in Finland. The material assumes that migrant families do not treat their children as individuals with rights, that children are subjected to violence and that boys and girls are treated differently. Vuori writes: “the implicit notion in my data is that migrants have gender equality problems.” At the same time, gender equality is presented as a reality that has been achieved in Finland through statements such as “men and women are equal in Finland”. Vuori’s analysis shows that integration work, and more specifically so-called social introduction, is based on the idea that there are significant differences in views on gender equality, sexuality and child-rearing in Finland compared to other societies from which migrants come. Therefore, education on these issues is considered important in preventing violence against women and children. As already mentioned, assumptions about migrants and their views on gender equality and child-rearing are problematic because they are based on generalised and stereotypical images of migrants. It is also problematic for another reason – it reinforces the self-image of Finland as a gender-equal society where violence against women and children has no place.

The same problem has been noted in relation to other Nordic countries. Linnéa Bruno, Associate Professor in child and youth studies at Stockholm University, has analysed the Swedish self-image in relation to the issue of children’s experiences of violence and how social services handle issues related to cases in which women with children leave their violent partners. She argues that Sweden’s self-image as a gender-equal country is misleading if attention is shifted from economic equality to other parameters, such as the handling of violence, both in interpersonal and structural terms. Her study paints a clear picture that shows that the identities of victims and perpetrators of violence play a role in how professionals assess cases of violence and that there is a tendency to culturalise violence, i.e. that violence is understood as culturally conditioned in some cases but not in others, depending on the perpetrator’s ethnicity, skin colour, religion or similar factors.

Honour-based violence as a gender equality issue

In Sweden, work against honour-based violence and oppression is carried out within the framework of gender equality policy and forms part of the sixth gender equality policy sub-goal: “Men’s violence against women must end. Women and men, girls and boys, should have the same right and opportunity to bodily integrity.” In accordance with the national strategy, honour-based violence and oppression are covered by the umbrella term ‘men’s violence against women’. The work is coordinated by the Gender Equality Unit at the Ministry of Employment.

Iceland’s action plan against violence treats honour-based violence alongside other forms of violence against women and violence in close relationships. However, Iceland’s action plan for integration highlights violence to which migrants may be particularly vulnerable, without specifically mentioning honour-based violence. The measures are thus aimed at all forms of violence, reflecting a holistic approach.

The relationship between honour-based violence and men’s violence against women is a controversial issue, and the debate tends to be simplified with reference to the fact that women also perpetrate violence and men are also victims of honour-based violence. The same argument is also used in relation to other groups that are vulnerable to violence, namely LGBTI people.

For all victims of violence to recognise themselves in descriptions of violence and be more inclined to seek support and help, regardless of sexuality or gender identity, Nordic steering documents advocate the use of gender-neutral language. On the one hand, gender-neutral language can contribute to a more inclusive approach, on the other it risks obscuring the patriarchal structures behind violence, specifically the gendered nature of violence and the understanding of violence as the ultimate expression of patriarchy and a means of maintaining patriarchal structures. GREVIO has highlighted this problem in its reviews.

Without aiming to resolve this debate, but while maintaining focus on honour-based violence and oppression, it may be appropriate to return to Aisha Gill’s argument regarding the understanding of honour-based violence as gender-based violence. Gender-based violence can be considered gender-neutral, as neither the victims nor the perpetrators of violence are identified. At the same time, gender and gender norms are central to understanding the causes and consequences of violence. Gill highlights that honour-based violence is a complex and multifaceted issue but that it should be considered a form of gender-based violence or violence against women (VAW) and not distinct from other forms of gender-based violence. By viewing honour-based violence as a manifestation of the broader problem of violence against women, honour-based violence can be understood as a violation of human rights.

In her analysis of the introduction to society for new arrivals in Finland, Vuori points out that violence against women with a migrant background is dealt with from a gender equality perspective, which should also highlight other forms of violence. She writes:

Why does the frame of gender equality not allow us to talk about the oppression of women’s rights, inequality, or discrimination in Finland with regard to Finnish women, in the context of migrant women’s lives, or globally?

There is a clear tendency for the structural perspective on gender equality, or the lack thereof, to be rendered invisible when violence is individualised and presented as a gender-neutral matter.

It is also important to clarify that the understanding of gender-based violence should not be reduced solely to individual gender differences and gender identities of perpetrators and victims. Gender-based violence is characterised by gender differences but also how social relationships are governed by gender norms, including social expectations of masculinity and femininity. In addition to the relational aspect, a structural perspective should be applied, which recognises gender as a social structure that influences social institutions, identities, attitudes and relationships. Gender is thus a system that places men, women and LGBTI people in different unequal relationships. Its structural nature means that gender functions as a social force, independent of the wishes and preferences of individuals. Therefore, the fact that women are also involved in perpetrating violence and that men can be subjected to honour-based violence does not automatically mean that the violence is not gender-based. Such an understanding does not exclude the need for specially adapted support measures due to the different expressions of violence, risk factors and the transnational dimension.

Honour-based violence as a parenting problem

It was noted earlier that several measures and initiatives have a younger target group, aimed at children and young people. This is also confirmed by the various steering documents studied. Finland’s Non-Violent Childhoods Action Plan for the prevention of violence against children presents a rights-based perspective in which honour-based violence is seen as a violation of children’s physical integrity or right to self-determination. Another example is Sweden’s action programme, which proposes several measures focusing on children and young people as well as support for parents, including training for parents with migrant backgrounds, in how to raise their children as “an alternative to repressive parenting”. In Norway, minority counsellors have been introduced as part of a special initiative for children and young people.

Presenting the problem as a question of upbringing should also be linked to the earlier discussion of the concept of negative social control, which is presented as one of the mechanisms of violence. The limits of control and views on upbringing are characterised by views on upbringing in each country. The Nordic countries also project a self-image characterised by a strong respect for individual freedoms and rights in relation to the issue of upbringing and views on children. Teaching about children’s rights is usually included in curricula in preschools and schools.

What consequences does such a self-image have for the view of social control? Hanna Cinthio, Doctor of Social Work, points out in her thesis that social control has become a very useful concept for studying interpersonal relationships, but therefore a criticism is that it has become too broad and vague. Cinthio defines social control as a conscious regulatory mechanism for dealing with actions that threaten social order. Social control can be exercised for preventive purposes but can also constitute a form of punishment.

What is interesting about Cinthio’s reasoning on social control is that she highlights different forms and levels of social control. She also highlights, among other things, the state’s control over individuals and groups through the criminalisation of certain behaviours. The broader perspective on social control shows that control also plays an important social function. The discourse on honour-based violence and oppression focuses on the control of individuals by families or groups. The question of how much control the state should exercise over individuals and families is less frequently discussed in this context. The framing of the concept of honour-based violence and oppression signals the seriousness and risk of the most severe form of violence, but in practice, other forms of control (related to upbringing) are also included in the concept. This raises the question of how much states should interfere in child-rearing, with the degree of accepted control varying in relation to different groups.

Solutions

While the previous section dealt with possible solutions based on the political area to which work against honour-based violence is assigned, this section will focus on the key solutions presented in the analysed steering documents. For the purposes of the analysis, key approaches that are common to the different countries have been selected. These solutions are also more practical in nature than the reasoning presented above.

Training and knowledge development

Several proposed measures concern education and the development of knowledge and methods. This is mainly in reference to professionals but in some cases applies to new arrivals and migrants. Norway’s action plan Freedom from Negative Social Control and Honour Based Violence aims, for example, to “prevent and combat honour-based violence through education”. The plan includes measures to increase the competence of professionals and educational initiatives for new arrivals. The educational initiatives can be directly linked to the framing of honour-based violence as a problem of integration. In the area of integration, the strategy Integrering gjennom kunnskap (Integration through knowledge) applies.

Sweden’s national strategy describes education as an important part of preventive work. Education on sex and relationships should convey the fundamental democratic values and human rights on which Swedish society is based, including issues relating to sexuality, gender roles and gender equality. The role of the school system is emphasised. In the most recent action programme, the government proposes that the role of the school system be strengthened. The Family Law and Parental Support Authority is also responsible for providing parental support and family counselling to families in honour contexts.

Law and order

Another clear theme is the legal treatment of honour-based violence through criminalisation. In Sweden, legislation has been tightened, first through the establishment of honour as an aggravating circumstance and second of honour crimes as a specific offence. In addition to honour crime, other acts have also been criminalised, such as forced marriage and female genital cutting. Other countries emphasise the importance of tightening legislation and express an intention to criminalise honour crimes.

Risk and safety assessments

The transnational nature and involvement of multiple perpetrators in honour-based crimes place higher demands on risk assessments and security measures. Several measures therefore address these issues specifically. This mainly concerns measures relating to cooperation, counselling and support at the operational level. Measures concerning procedures and guidelines for how authorities, schools, healthcare and the judiciary should handle cases of honour-based violence are also examples of the increased focus on risk and security assessments. This trend is most evident in Denmark, where travel teams, security consultants and a coordination unit for re-education trips and involuntary stays abroad have been in place for several years. In Sweden, efforts to combat harmful stays abroad in honour-based contexts have also been intensified. A proposal has been put forward for a reporting system to keep statistics on missing and abducted children, as well as a set of rules on travel bans and citizenship.

Conclusion

In the Nordic countries, a combination of different understandings of the problem of honour-based violence and oppression can be seen, as well as different solutions. However, in general the main trends that emerge in steering documents shows a discrepancy between the way the problem is presented on the one hand and the solutions proposed on the other. Fundamental social problems, such as gender inequalities, poor integration or problematic views on parenting, are intended to be solved through education, criminalisation and security measures. The proposed solutions are not wrong in themselves and serve important purposes and functions but there is a risk that they will be insufficient.

Legal measures and risk and safety assessments focus on extreme cases of violence and the risk of victims being taken abroad against their will or subjected to re-education trips, forced marriage or genital cutting. The transnational nature of this violence places higher demands on cooperation between various authorities within and outside the country, and this mainly involves measures at the operational level. Risk assessments and security measures are necessary and should not be underestimated. At the same time, this is reactive work in connection with serious violations that does not aim to address the root causes of the problem. An increased focus on reactive work should be reviewed and assessed in relation to the prioritisation of existing needs and the distribution of resources between preventive and operational work. If such an assessment is not made, there is a risk that all resources and measures will have short-term effects and fail to address the problem in a sustainable manner.

Another effect of the increased focus on risk and safety measures is that violence is individualised, i.e. understood in terms of isolated incidents. Previous knowledge about gender-based violence and men’s violence against women shows that individualising violence is a way of depoliticising the problem. It is presented as a private matter that does not require major political initiatives or reforms. When violence is individualised and depoliticised, its structural causes – the patriarchal power relations that perpetuate gender inequality – are rendered invisible. This contrasts with representations that emphasise that honour norms are about the subordination of women, heteronormativity and homophobia. The same effect, i.e. individualisation, can be observed in connection with criminalisation, when legal measures are considered to be the most central and effective. The law, and criminal law in particular, has an important function – to highlight and convey that certain behaviours and actions are not accepted in society and that the state therefore has the legitimate power to use coercive measures as punishment. The Nordic countries have historically been described as exceptional in their view of criminal law and the criminal justice system, where rehabilitation has long been considered the ultimate goal. In recent years, there have been several changes that have been described in research as ‘the punitive turn’, i.e. a shift towards punishment as the ultimate goal rather than rehabilitation. This change has resulted, among other things, in increased criminalisation. Criminalisation contributes to the individualisation of violence, where the focus is on individuals who commit violent acts. Once again, as in relation to risk and security assessments, legal regulation is necessary. However, this and the required resources should be considered in relation to preventive work.

Criminalising honour-based violence also raises important questions about legal certainty. There is a risk that such legislation, in covering certain groups, does not meet the requirement of generality. In practice, it is ethnic minorities that are covered, such as Kurdish, Somali or Roma minorities. When the criminalisation of honour-based violence was introduced in Sweden, it was met with criticism from several actors. There is also a need to study existing practice more closely, i.e. how the courts have reasoned about motives and assessed evidence.

While criminalisation, risk and safety measures are part of the reactive work that is initiated after violence has occurred, educational measures are central to preventive work. Preventive work consists of skills enhancement initiatives for professionals and educational initiatives for new arrivals and ethnic minorities through social introduction, education in sex and relationships, and parenting support. Previous research in this area has highlighted the need to consider a range of different areas, including housing, employment and economic conditions. Dependency and confinement have been identified as important factors behind the development and maintenance of conservative and patriarchal norms (described as honour norms).