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5. Annexes

5.1. Information sources to be consulted, according to Terms of References for this study

  • Regional sea conventions such as OSPAR and HELCOM
  • Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs goal 12 and 14)
  • The EU Marine Strategy Framework, The EU Waste Directive, The EU Packaging Directive, The EU Single Use Plastic Directive, the EU Waste Statistics Regulation, The circular economy action plan and other relevant EU-legislation and initiatives
  • ECHA’s microplastics proposal
  • UNEP regional seas programmes
  • AMAP and PAME programmes within Arctic Council
  • The Basel Convention and other chemical conventions
  • ICES relevant work on indicators
  • Other relevant initiatives for example within OECD and EEA
  • ECHA’s Committee for Risk Assessment and Committee for Socio-Economic Analysis: Opinion on an Annex XV dossier proposing restrictions on intentionally-added microplastics.

5.2. Frameworks including potential indicators, sorted by the DPSIR concept

DRIVERS

UNEP (2022):
- Plastic production/ manufacturing- Product Trade- Transport- Consumption products- Extreme weather events
OECD:
- Environmental and resource productivity of the economy
- Socio-economic context and characteristics of growth
SDG targets on production and consumption of plastic products:
- SDG Target 8.4: Improve progressively, through 2030, global resource efficiency in consumption and production and endeavour to decouple economic growth from environmental degradation, in accordance with the 10-Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production, with developed countries taking the lead. 
Directive (EU) 2019/904 (also Responses):
- Article 4: Consumption reduction: Member States shall take the necessary measures to achieve an ambitious and sustained reduction in the consumption of the single-use plastic products
- Article 5: Restrictions on placing on the market: Member States shall prohibit the placing on the market of certain single-use plastic products and of products made from oxo-degradable plastic
- Article 6: Product requirements: Member States shall ensure that certain single-use plastic products that have caps and lids made of plastic may be placed on the market only if the caps and lids remain attached to the containers during the products’ intended use stage
- Article 7: Marking requirements: Member States shall ensure that each certain single-use plastic product placed on the market bears a conspicuous, clearly legible and indelible marking on its packaging or on the product itself informing consumers of the following: (a) appropriate waste management options, and (b) the presence of plastic in the product and the resulting negative impact of littering on the environment.
- Article 8: Extended producer responsibility: 1) Member States shall ensure that extended producer responsibility schemes are established for all certain single-use plastic products, which are placed on the market, in accordance with Directive 2008/98/EC. 2) Member States shall ensure that the producers of certain  single-use plastic products cover the costs pursuant to the extended producer responsibility provisions in Directives 2008/98/EC and 94/62/EC. 3) Member States shall ensure that the producers of certain single-use plastic products cover at least the following costs: (a) the costs of the awareness raising measures, (b) the costs of cleaning up litter resulting from those products and the subsequent transport and treatment of that litter, (c) the costs of data gathering and reporting in accordance with Directive 2008/98/EC.
- Article 12: Specifications and guidelines on single-use plastic products: The Commission shall publish guidelines, in consulta­tion with Member States, of what is to be considered a single-use plastic product
- Article 13: Information systems and reporting on data on certain single-use plastic products: e.g., to demonstrate the consumption reduction, the attainment of the separate collection targets, fishing gear containing plastic placed on the market and on waste fishing gear collected, on recycled content in beverage bottles, the post-consumption waste of certain single-use plastic products. The data and information reported by Member States shall be accompanied by a quality check report, which will be reviewed by the Commission
EC (2020) (also Responses):
The Commission will address emerging sustainability challenges by developing a policy framework on:
- Sourcing, labelling and use of bio-based plastic, based on assessing where the use of bio-based feedstock results in genuine environmental benefits, going beyond reduction in using fossil resources
- Use of biodegradable or compostable plastic, based on an assessment of the applications where such use can be beneficial to the environment, and of the criteria for such applications. It will aim to ensure that labelling a product as ‘biodegradable’ or ‘compostable’ does not mislead consumers to dispose of it in a way that causes plastic littering or pollution due to unsuitable environmental conditions or insufficient time for degradation
ECHA (2020a and 2020b): Regarding restrictions on intentionally added micro-plastic:
- Transition periods and derogations for certain sectors have been proposed with the aim to minimize costs to society, without unnecessary delay in emissions reduction. In this manner industry will have sufficient time to develop and transition to suitable alternatives, including biodegradable polymers where this is appropriate
- Instructions for use and disposal requirements have been proposed for uses where risks can be minimized by appropriate conditions of use and disposal. This provision will also enable information exchange along the supply chain
- Reporting requirements have been proposed to improve the evidence base on the remaining uses of micro-plastic. This is considered a cost-effective way to enable the Commission and Member States to consider if and to what extent additional action could be needed in 5-10 years
- Using existing analytical methods, to establish if micro-plastic is present in mixtures, will avoid unnecessary testing costs. Use of these methods can ensure that only non-micro- plastic polymers are used in products that inevitably lead to releases to the environment
- The restriction is designed so that enforcement authorities can set up efficient supervision mechanisms to monitor compliance with the proposed restriction and is practically implementable for companies
- It is possible to determine if a product includes polymer-containing particles of the relevant dimensions. For the cases where the particle is mainly non-polymer, there is also a need to determine the amount of polymer present in the particle. Applied methods for determining the amount of polymer will need to be decided on a case-by-case basis, but that suitable methods are available
ECHA (2020a and 2020b): Regarding restrictions on intentionally added micro-plastic:
The following sectors have specified transitional arrangements:
- Cosmetic products, Controlled-release fertilisers, Microbeads contained in detergents, Frag­rance encapsulates, Other micro-plastic contained in deter­gents, waxes, polishes and air care products, Capsule suspen­sion plant protection products and biocides, Medical devices, Polymeric infill material
- For uses derogated from the restriction on use, the proposed reporting requirement will allow information on them to be gathered and, where necessary, future additions to the restric­tion could be considered. For imported mixtures, the compli­ance control can be accomplish­ed by border authorities and notifications of any violation of the restriction can be reported in the RAPEX system
- It is recommended that the restriction is reviewed five years after entry into force to see how the market has adapted to the restriction, how well biodegradable polymers perform for the relevant uses and what additional information is available on the impacts of micro-plastic on the environment and human health.
EEA (2022):
- Plastic packaging production
- Decoupling of plastic packaging waste generation from GDP 
- Industrial pellets (raw materials) on coastlines and in seabirds
- Loss of containers at sea
Directive (EU) 2019/904:
- Article 9: Separate collection: Member States shall take the necessary measures to ensure the separate collection for recycling
- Article 10: Awareness raising measures: Member States shall take measures to inform consumers and to incentivise responsible consumer behaviour, in order to reduce litter from certain products, and shall take measures to inform consumers of certain single-use plastic products and users of fishing gear containing plastic about the following: (a) the availability of re-usable alternatives, re-use systems and waste management options as well as best practices in sound waste management carried out in accordance with Directive 2008/98/EC; (b) the impact of littering and other inappropriate waste disposal of those single-use plastic products and of fishing gear containing plastic on particularly the marine environment, (c) the impact of inappropriate means of waste disposal of certain single-use plastic products on the sewer network
Directive 2008/98/EC:
- Article 4: Waste hierarchy: The following waste hierarchy shall apply as a priority order in waste prevention and management legislation and policy:
(a) prevention; (b) preparing for re-use; (c) recycling; (d) other recovery, e.g., energy recovery; (e) disposal
- Article 7: List of waste shall include hazardous waste and shall take into account the origin and composition of the waste and, where necessary, the limit values of concentration of hazardous substances
- Article 8: Extended producer responsibility: In order to strengthen the re-use and the prevention, recycling and other recovery of waste, Member States may take legislative or non- legislative measures to ensure that any natural or legal person who professionally develops, manufactures, processes, treats, sells or imports products (producer of the product) has extended producer responsibility
- Article 14: Costs: In accordance with the polluter-pays principle, the costs of waste management, including for the necessary infrastructure and its operation, shall be borne by the original waste producer or by the current or previous waste holders
- Article 15: Responsibility for waste management: Member States shall take the necessary measures to ensure that any original waste producer or other holder carries out the treatment of waste himself or has the treatment handled by a dealer or an establishment or undertaking which carries out waste treatment operations or arranged by a private or public waste collector
- Article 16: Principles of self-sufficiency and proximity: Mem­ber States shall take appropria­te measures to establish an integrated and adequate network of waste disposal installations and of installations for the recovery of mixed municipal waste collected from private households, including where such collection also covers such waste from other producers, taking into account best available techniques
EC (2020):
To increase uptake of recycled plastic and contribute to the more sustainable use of plastic,
- the Commission will propose mandatory requirements for recycled content and waste
- reduction measures for key products such as packaging, construction materials and
- vehicles, also taking into account the activities of the Circular Plastic Alliance
BC (2019) (also Responses):
General obligations on:
- Import of hazardous wastes or other wastes for disposal
- Prohibition or permission of export of hazardous wastes and other wastes
- Reduction of generation of hazardous wastes and other wastes
- Ensure the availability of adequate disposal facilities
- Ensure to prevent pollution due to hazardous wastes and other wastes arising from waste management
- Ensure that the transboundary movement of hazardous wastes and other wastes is reduced to the minimum
- Not allow the export of hazardous wastes or other wastes to certain states
- Requirements to information about a proposed transboundary movement of hazardous wastes and other wastes
- Prevent the import of hazardous wastes and other wastes if the wastes will not be managed in an environmentally sound manner
- Co-operate in activities with other Parties and interested organizations
- Illegal traffic in hazardous wastes or other wastes is criminal
- Taking legal, administrative and other measures to implement and enforce the provisions of this Convention
-  Packaging, labelling, transport and documentation of movement of hazardous wastes and other wastes that are to be the subject of a transboundary movement
- Management of hazardous wastes and other wastes in an environmentally sound manner 

PRESSURES

UNEP (2022):
- Raw material extraction, incl. production of monomers and polymers
- Outdoor abrasions
- Emissions to environment, i.e.
Direct: Plastic products, additives, industrial waste incl. pellets, powders; Indirect: Abrasion of micro-plastic
- Leakages/fluxes: e.g., divided into 10 sources as in the OSPAR Matrix Score approach: Fishing (incl. fishing ports); Tourism and recreational activities; Commercial shipping; Harbour operations and facilities; Land-based commerce and industry; Recreational boating (incl. marinas); Other maritime industries (e.g., offshore); Aquaculture; Waste disposal and collection; Sewage outlets and rainwater overflows 
SDG targets on raw material extraction:
- SDG Target 6.4: By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity
- SDG Target 7.2: By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix
- SDG Target 12.2: Sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources
- SDG Target 15.1: By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands, mountains and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements
Directive (EU) 2019/904:
- Article 11: Coordination of measures: The measures that Member States take shall comply with Union food law to ensure that food hygiene and food safety are not compromized, by encouraging the use of sustainable alternatives to single-use plastic where possible for materials intended to come into contact with food 
ECHA (2020a and 2020b) (also State):
Regarding restrictions on intentionally added micro-plastic:
- The implementation of the proposed restrictions can be monitored via calculating emissions and, potentially, through monitoring studies of certain types of relevant micro- plastic in wastewater and sludge (e.g., microbeads, which tend to be fairly large)
SDG targets on emissions to environment:

- SDG Target 12.4 By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and al wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with international frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts in human health and the environment
- Riverine inputs
- Point source inputs
- Airborne deposition
SDG targets on waste management (also Responses):
- SDG Target 11.6: By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by paying special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management
- SDG Target 12.5: Substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse
- SDG Target 6.3: By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally
Directive 94/62/EC (also Responses):
- Article 4: Prevention: Member States shall ensure that, in addition to the measures taken in accordance with Article 9, other preventive measures are implemented in order to prevent generation of packaging waste and to minimize the environmental impact of packaging. The Commission shall help to promote prevention by encouraging the development of suitable European standards, which shall aim to minimize the environmental impact of packaging
- Article 6: Recovery and recycling: Member States shall take the necessary measures to attain targets on recovery and recycling of packaging waste
- Article 6a: Rules on the calculation of the attainment of the targets: Member States shall calculate the weight of packaging waste generated and recycled in a given calendar year. The weight of packaging waste recycled shall be calculated as the weight of packaging that has become waste. Member States shall establish an effective system of quality control and traceability of the packaging waste
- Article 7: Return, collection and recovery systems: Member Sta­tes shall take the necessary measures to ensure that sys­tems are set up to provide for the return and/or collection of used packaging and/or packag­ing waste from the consumer, other final user, or from the waste stream in order to channel it to the most appro­priate waste management alternatives; The reuse or reco­very including recycling of the packaging and/or packaging waste collected. Member States shall take measures to promote high quality recycling of packag­ing waste and to meet the necessary quality standards for the relevant recycling sectors.
EEA (2022):
- PPSI waste generated per capita
- Share of mismanaged PPSI waste
- Mismanaged PPSI waste per capita
- Total mismanaged PPSI waste generated
- Pressure mismanaged PPSI waste at the coast
- Annual riverine floating litter discharged into the sea

STATE

UNEP (2022):
- Concentrations, characteristics, composition and trends of macro- and micro-plastic in/on marine environment: Coastline, Beach, Sea surface, Water column, Seafloor/sediment, Biota (ingestion, entanglement)
- Freshwater, air and soil as indirect measures of state for the marine environment
OECD:
Natural asset base 
GESAMP (2019):
Monitoring biota as an overall indicator of ecosystem contamination
SDG target on marine and coastal environment:
- SDG Target 14.1: By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution.
SDG targets on freshwater:
- SDG Target 6.3: By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally
- SDG Target 6.6: By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes
SDG target on air and humans:
- SDG 12.4 By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment
SDG target on soil:
- SDG Target 15.5: Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species
SDG target on biota:
- SDG Target 15.5: Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species
EC (2020) (also Drivers and Pressures):
The Commission will address the presence of micro-plastic in the environment by:
- Restricting intentionally added micro-plastic and tackling pellets taking into account the opinion of the European Chemicals Agency
- Developing labelling, standardisation, certification and regulatory measures on unintentional release of micro-plastic, including measures to increase the capture of micro-plastic at all relevant stages of products’ lifecycle
- Further developing and harmonising methods for measuring unintentionally released micro-plastic, especially from tyres and textiles, and delivering harmonized data on micro-plastic concentrations in seawater
- Closing the gaps on scientific knowledge related to the risk and occurrence of micro-plastic in the environment, drinking water and foods
AMAP (2021a):
Research recommendations for micro-plastic monitoring in Arctic fish:
- Development of methods to quantify micro-plastic in muscle and liver of fish
- Development of methods to quantify nano-plastics in fish tissues
- Correlation of chemical contaminant data with micro-plastic exposure 
AMAP (2021a):
Research recommendations for litter and micro-plastic monito­ring in Arctic breeding seabirds:
- Black Guillemot stomachs for all litter ≥ 1 mm
- Parental transfer of plastic to chicks in species known to ingest plastic pollution
- Non-lethal sampling of Dovekie gular pouches delivered to chicks
- Northern Fulmar eggs for plastic pollution links to contaminants
- Common Eider eggs for plastic pollution links to contaminants
- Ingested plastic particles < 1 mm in species vulnerable to ingestion of these small particles
AMAP (2021a):
- Given the current evidence, including the low presence, if any, of plastics in digestive tracts, mammals are not a useful indicator of the physical occurrence of plastics in the environment
AMAP (2021a):
- To compare numeric values on plastic contamination between studies and to relate laboratory exposure studies with quantitative field studies, the smallest particle and largest particle sizes measured, mean and median sizes, and ideally, additional size distribution indicators need to be provided
EEA (2022):
- Overall status of the coast and marine waters
- Status of offshore areas
- Status of coastal areas
- Abundance and trends of beach litter
- Abundance of PPSI litter on beaches
Directive 2008/98/EC:
- Article 17: Control of hazardous waste: Member States shall take the necessary action to ensure that the production, collection and transportation of hazardous waste, as well as its storage and treatment, are carried out in conditions providing protection for the environment and human health
- Article 18: Ban on the mixing of hazardous waste: Member States shall take the necessary measures to ensure that hazardous waste is not mixed, either with other categories of hazardous waste or with other waste, substances or materials
Regulation (EC) No 2150/2002:
- Article 3: Collection of data: Member States shall, whilst complying with conditions as to
quality and accuracy, acquire the data necessary for the specification
of the characteristics listed in Annexes I and II by means either of: surveys; administrative or other sources, such as the reporting obligations under Community legislation on waste management; statistical estimation procedures on the basis of samples or waste related estimators; a combination of these means
- Article 5: Import and export of waste: The Commission shall draw up a programme for pilot studies on the import and export of waste to be carried out by Member States. The pilot studies shall aim at developing a methodology to obtain regular data which shall be governed by the principles of Community statistics
- Annex I (generation of waste), and Annex II (recovery and disposal of waste) comprise covered waste categories, report on the coverage and quality of statistics, and transmission of results to Eurostat

IMPACTS

UNEP (2022):
Trends and changes in state (also Responses):
- Ecosystem health: Biodiversity, mortality, reproduction of species, food web and habitat impacts
- Ecosystem services:
Climate regulation, primary productivity, recycling of nutrients, protection from severe weather events
- Economic: Prevention, damage, clean-up, hazards, mitigation, lost opportunities, indirect, trade barriers/profits
- Human (via environment): Health, well-being, livelihoods, food security, water security 
OECD (also Drivers):
- Environmental dimension of quality of life
SDG targets on ecosystem health:
- SDG Target 12.4: By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment
- SDG Target 14.5: By 2020, conserve at least 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, consistent with national and international law and based on the best available scientific information
- SDG Target 15.5: Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species.
SDG targets on ecosystem services:
- SDG Target 14.2: By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans
- SDG Target 6.5: By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate
- SDG Target 15.2: By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation globally
SDG targets on economics:
- SDG Target 8.9: By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products
- SDG Target 8.2: Achieve higher levels of economic productivity through diversification, technological upgrading and innovation, including through a focus on high-value added and labour-intensive sectors
- SDG Target 9.4: By 2030, upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries to make them sustainable, with increased resource-use efficiency and greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound technologies and industrial processes, with all countries taking action in accordance with their respective capabilities
SDG targets on humans:
- SDG Target 8.2: Achieve higher levels of economic productivity through diversification, technological upgrading and innovation, including through a focus on high-value added and labour-intensive sectors
- SDG Target 3.9: By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water and soil pollution and contamination 
ECHA (2020a and 2020b):
- A restriction under REACH should minimize releases of intentionally added micro-plastic to the environment, as per PBT/vPvB substances, in order to minimize the likelihood of adverse effects arising as a consequence of increasing exposure concentrations if the use of intentionally added micro-plastic were to be continued
- Minimization of release would also minimize the potential for cumulative effects arising from the presence of both primary (intentionally added) and secondary micro-plastic in the environment
Directive 2008/98/EC:
- Article 13: Protection of human health and the environment: Member States shall take the necessary measures to ensure that waste management is carried out without endangering human health, without harming the environment and, in particular: (a) without risk to water, air, soil, plants or animals, (b) without causing a nuisance through noise or odours, (c) without adversely affecting the countryside or places of special interest

RESPONSES

UNEP (2022):
Governance:
- Policy and law: Legislation, standards, strategies, action plans, roadmaps, EPR, Circularity, waste management, monitoring programmes, removal programmes
- Technology, Innovation, Research: Materials, services, alternatives, monitoring, impact, infrastructure, pathways
- Sustainable finance: Public, private sector, public-private partnerships, grants and donors
- Cooperation & capacity-building:
MEAs, intergovernmental and regional agreements, Basel Convention Partnership on Plastic Waste, technical & financial assistance, awareness & education
OECD (also Driver):
Economic opportunities and policy responses
SDG targets on policy and law:
- SDG Target 15.5: Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species
- SDG Target 12.1: Implement the 10-Year Framework of Programs on sustainable consumption and production (10YFP), all countries taking action, with developed countries taking the lead, taking into account the development and capabilities of developing countries
- SDG Target 6.b: Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management
- SDG Target 8.3: Promote development-oriented policies that support productive activities, decent job creation, entrepreneurship, creativity and innovation, and encourage the formalization and growth of micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises, including through access to financial services
- SDG Target 12.7: Promote public procurement practices that are sustainable, in accordance with national policies and priorities
- SDG Target 13.2: Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning
- SDG Target 15.9: By 2020, integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into natio­nal and local planning, development processes, poverty reduction strategies and accounts
- SDG Target 17.14: Enhance policy coherence for sustainable development
SDG targets on technology, innovation and research:
- SDG Target 8.2: Achieve higher levels of economic productivity through diversification, technological upgrading and innovation, including through a focus on high-value added and labour-intensive sectors
- SDG Target 9.4: By 2030, upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries to make them sustainable, with increased resource-use efficiency and greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound technologies and industrial processes, with all countries taking action in accordance with their respective capabilities
- SDG Target 17.7: Promote the development, transfer, dissemi­na­tion and diffusion of environ­ment­ally sound technologies to developing countries on favourable terms, including on concessional and preferential terms, as mutually agreed
- SDG Target 6.3: By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally
SDG targets on sustainable finance:
- SDG Target 15.a: Mobilize and significantly increase financial resources from all sources to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems
- SDG Target 12.c: Rationalize inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies that encourage wasteful con­sump­tion by removing market distortions, in accordance with national circumstances, including by restructuring taxation and phasing out those harmful subsidies, where they exist, to reflect their environmental impacts, taking fully into account the specific needs and conditions of developing countries and minimizing the possible adverse impacts on their development in a manner that protects the poor and the affected communities
- SDG Target 9.a: Facilitate sustainable and resilient infrastructure development in developing countries through enhanced financial, technological and technical support to African countries, least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing States
SDG targets on cooperation and capacity building:
- SDG Target 6.a: By 2030, expand international coopera­tion and capacity-building support to developing countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and programmes, including water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies
- SDG Target 12.a: Support developing countries to strengthen their scientific and technological capacity to move towards more sustainable patterns of consumption and production
- SDG Target 12.8: By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature
- SDG Target 17.17: Encourage and promote effective public, public-private and civil society partnerships, building on the experience and resourcing strategies of partnerships

- Public clean-ups

- Fishing for litter

- Retrieval of lost fishing gear
Amounts for:
- Incineration
- Recycling
Directive 94/62/EC:
- Article 5: Reuse: Member States shall take measures to increase the share of reusable packaging placed on the market and of systems to reuse packaging in an environmentally sound manner, and without compromising food hygiene or the safety of consumers
- Article 8: Marking and identification system: The Council shall facilitate collection, reuse and recovery including recycling, packaging. Furthermore packaging shall bear the appropriate marking either on the packaging itself or on the label
- Article 8a: Specific measures for biodegradable and compostable plastic carrier bags
- Article 10: Standardization: The Commission shall promote criteria and methodologies for life-cycle analysis of packaging, methods for measuring and verifying the presence of heavy metals and other dangerous substances in the packaging and their release into the environment from packaging and packaging waste, criteria for a minimum content of recycled material in packaging for appropriate types of packaging, criteria for recycling methods, criteria for composting methods and produced compost, criteria for the marking of packaging
- Article 11: Concentration levels of heavy metals present in packaging: Member States shall ensure that the sum of concentration levels of lead, cadmium, mercury and hexavalent chromium present in packaging or packaging components shall not exceed certain threshold values
- Article 12: Information systems and reporting: Member States shall take the necessary measures to ensure that databases on packaging and packaging waste are established
- Article 13: Information for users of packaging: Member States shall take measures to ensure that users of packaging, including in particular consumers, obtain the necessary information about: the return, collection and recovery systems available to them; their role in contributing to reuse, recovery and recycling of packaging and packaging waste, the meaning of markings on packaging existing on the market, the appropriate elements of the management plans for packaging and packaging waste. Member States shall also promote consumer information and awareness campaigns
- Article 20a: Reporting on plastic carrier bags: By 27 November 2021, the Commission shall present a report to the European Parliament and to the Council, assessing the effectiveness of measures in Article 4(1a) at Union level, in combating littering, changing consumer behaviour and promoting waste prevention
Directive 2008/98/EC (also Drivers):
- Article 6: End-of-waste status: Member States shall take appropriate measures to ensure that waste which has undergone a recycling or other recovery operation is considered to have ceased to be waste
- Article 9: Prevention of waste: Member States shall monitor and assess the implementation of the waste prevention measures
- Article 10: Recovery: Member States shall take the necessary measures to ensure that waste undergoes preparing for re-use, recycling or other recovery operations
- Article 11: Preparing for re-use and recycling:  Member States shall take measures to promote preparing for re-use activities
- Article 12: Disposal: Member States shall ensure that, where recovery is not undertaken, waste undergoes safe disposal operations
- Article 28: Waste management plans: Member States shall ensure that their competent authorities establish one or more waste management plans
- Article 29: Waste prevention programmes: Member States shall establish waste prevention programmes setting out at least the waste prevention measures as laid down in Article 9(1) in accordance with Articles 1 and 4
- Article 30: Evaluation and review of plans and programmes: Member States shall ensure that the waste management plans and waste prevention programmes are evaluated at least every sixth year and revised as appropriate
- Article 31: Public participation: Member States shall ensure that relevant stakeholders and authorities and the general public have the opportunity to participate in the elaboration of the waste management plans and waste prevention programmes, and have access to them once elaborated
- Article 32-37: Cooperation, information to be submitted to the Commission, inspections, record keeping, enforcement and penalties, reporting

5.3. Currently used indicators, sorted by the DPSIR concept

DRIVERS

OECD (Green Growth indicators):
Environmental and resource productivity of the economy:
- Production-based CO2 productivity
- Demand-based CO2 productivity
- Energy productivity
- Energy intensity by sector
- Share of renewable energy sources
- Demand-based material productivity
- Production-based (domestic) material productivity
- Waste generation intensity and recovery ratios
- Nutrient flows and balances (N, P)
- Water productivity
- Environmentally adjusted multifactor productivity
OECD (Green Growth indicators):
Socio-economic context and characteristics of growth:
- Economic growth, productivity, and competitiveness (economic growth and structure, productivity and trade, inflation and commodity prices)
- Labour market, education and income (labour markets, socio-demographic patterns)
OECD (Socio-Economic indicators):
- GDP And Population (gross domestic product, population growth and density)
- Consumption (private consumption, government consumption)
- Energy (energy intensities, energy mix)
- Expenditure (pollution abatement and control expenditure, official development assistance)
OECD (Circular Economy indicators) (also State):
- Waste (total waste, intensities per capita or GDP, municipal waste, intensities per capita, municipal waste by treatment operation: composting, incineration with/without energy recovery, landfill, other disposal, recycling, other recovery)
- Material use (domestic material consumption: biomass, fossil energy materials/carriers, non-metallic minerals, metals)
- Domestic material consumption
- Material productivity
- Material footprint per capita
EU (2020) (Circular economy indicators
) (also Responses):
- Production and consumption (EU self-sufficiency for raw materials, generation of municipal waste per capita, generation of waste excluding major mineral wastes per GDP unit, generation of waste excluding major mineral wastes per domestic material consumption)
- Waste Management (recycling rate of municipal waste, recycling rate of all waste excluding major mineral waste, recycling rate of packaging waste by type of packaging, recycling rate of e-waste, recycling of biowaste, recovery rate of construction and demolition waste)
- Secondary raw materials (contribution of recycled materials to raw materials demand - end-of-life recycling input rates (EOL-RIR), circular material use rate, trade in recyclable raw materials)
- Competitiveness and innovation (private investments, jobs and gross value added related to circular economy sectors, patents related to recycling and secondary raw materials)

PRESSURES

OECD (Environmental indicators) (also State):
- Climate Change (CO2 emission intensities, greenhouse gas concentrations)
- Ozone Layer Depletion (ozone depleting substances)
- Air Quality (air emission intensities, urban air quality)
- Waste (waste generation, waste recycling)
- Water Quality (river quality, wastewater treatment)
- Water Resources (intensity of use of water resources, public water supply and price)
- Forest Resources (intensity of use of forest resources, forest and wooded land)
SDG (indicator on emissions to environment):
- SDG Indicator 13.2.2: Total greenhouse gas emissions per year
SDG (indicator on waste management):
- SDG Indicator 13.2.2: Total greenhouse gas emissions per year
SDG (indicator on raw material extraction) (also Responses):
- SDG Indicator 12.5.1: National recycling rate, tons of material recycled

STATE

Biota:
- RSCAP (common indicator)
RSCAP: Regional Plan on Marine Litter Management in the Mediterranean; PAME- Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter in the Arctic; OSPAR - Regional Action Plan for Prevention and Management of Marine Litter in the North-East Atlantic; Black Sea Marine Litter Regional Action Plan; - Regional Action Plan for Marine Litter in the Baltic Sea; Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources.
Beach litter:
- RSCAP (common indicator)
RSCAP: Regional Plan on Marine Litter Management in the Mediterranean; PERSGA - Regional Action Plan for the sustainable Management of Marine Litter in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden; PAME- Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter in the Arctic; OSPAR - Regional Action Plan for Prevention and Management of Marine Litter in the North-East Atlantic; NOWPAP Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter; Western Ocean Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter (WIO-RAPMaLi); Regional Action Plan on Marine litter Management for the Wider Caribbean Region 2014; Black Sea Marine Litter Regional Action Plan; HELCOM Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter - Regional Action Plan for Marine Litter in the Baltic Sea; Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources.
Seafloor litter:
- RSCAP (common indicator)
RSCAP: Regional Plan on Marine Litter Management in the Mediterranean; PERGSA - Regional Action Plan for the sustainable Management of Marine Litter in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden; OSPAR - Regional Action Plan for Prevention and Management of Marine Litter in the North-East Atlantic; NOWPAP Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter; Black Sea Marine Litter Regional Action Plan. HELCOM.
Micro-plastic:
- RSCAP (recommended common indicator)
RSCAP: Regional Plan on Marine Litter Management in the Mediterranean; PAME/AMAP - Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter in the Arctic; OSPAR - Regional Action Plan for Prevention and Management of Marine Litter in the North-East Atlantic; Western Ocean Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter (WIO-RAPMaLi); Black Sea Marine Litter Regional Action Plan; HELCOM.
- OSPAR and HELCOM is currently working to develop new indicators, including micro-plastic in sediments. 
Water column/floating litter:
- RSCAP (common indicator)
RSCAP: Regional Plan on Marine Litter Management in the Mediterranean; PERSGA - Regional Action Plan for the sustainable Management of Marine Litter in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden; Black Sea Marine Litter Regional Action Plan; HELCOM; PAME/AMAP.
Monitoring (ECOQ for ingestion of litter in indicator species suitable for monitoring, i.e., sea turtles):
- RSCAP (indicators under consideration or development at the regional level)
Ingestion of litter in other biota (e.g., fish and turtles):
-RSCAP (indicators under consideration or development at the regional level)
OECD (Green Growth indicators):
Natural asset base:
- Natural resource stocks (index of natural resources)
- Renewable stocks (freshwater, forest and fish resources)
- Non-renewable stocks (mineral resources)
- Biodiversity and ecosystems (land, soil and wildlife resources)
SDG (indicator on marine and coastal environment):
– 14.1.1b: Index of plastic debris density
SDG (indicator on waste generation and management):
- 12.4.2 (a) Hazardous waste generated per capita; and (b) Proportion of hazardous waste treated, by type of treatment

IMPACTS

Biota:
- RSCAP (common indicator)
RSCAP: Regional Plan on Marine Litter Management in the Mediterranean; PAME- Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter in the Arctic; OSPAR - Regional Action Plan for Prevention and Management of Marine Litter in the North-East Atlantic; Black Sea Marine Litter Regional Action Plan; - Regional Action Plan for Marine Litter in the Baltic Sea; Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources.
OECD (Green Growth indicators) (also Driver):
Environmental dimension of quality of life:
- Environmental health and risks (environmentally induced health problems and related costs, exposure to natural or industrial risks and related economic losses)
- Environmental services and amenities (access to sewage treatment and drinking water)
SDG (indicators on ecosystem health):
- SDG Indicator 15.1.2: Proportion of important sites for terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity that are covered by protected areas, by ecosystem type
- SDG Indicator 15.4.1: Coverage by protected areas of important sites for mountain biodiversity

RESPONSES

Proof of action implementation:
- RSCAP (common indicator)
RSCP: Regional Plan on Marine Litter Management in the Mediterranean; SPREP - Pacific Regional Action Plan Marine Litter; PERSGA - Regional Action Plan for the sustainable Management of Marine Litter in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden; PAME - Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter in the Arctic; Western Ocean Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter (WIO-RAPMaLi); Black Sea Marine Litter Regional Action Plan; ASEAN Framework of Action on Marine Debris; HELCOM Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter - Regional Action Plan for Marine Litter in the Baltic Sea; Abidjan Convention; TEHERAN Convention - Caspian Sea.
OECD (Green Growth indicators) (also Driver):
Economic opportunities and policy responses:
- Technology and innovation (research and development expenditure of importance to green growth, patents of importance to green growth, environment-related innovation in all sectors)
- Environmental goods and services (production of environmental goods and services (EGS))
- International financial flows (international financial flows of importance to green growth)
- Prices and transfers (environmentally related taxation and subsidies, energy pricing, water pricing and cost recovery (tbd))
- Regulations and management approaches (indicators to be developed)
- Training and skill development (indicators to be developed)
New Plastic Economy Global Commitment
 (indicators for tracking progress):
- Elimination of problematic or unnecessary plastic packaging (redesign, innovation, and new delivery models)
- Moving from single-use to reuse models
- Reusable, recyclable or compostable by design
-  Reuse, recycling or composting in practice
- Decoupling from the consumption of finite resources
- Transparency (proportion of signatories reporting)
SDG (indicator on policy and law):
- SDG Indicator 15.2.1: Progress towards sustainable forest management
Directive 2008/98/EC:
- Article 9: Prevention of waste: Member States shall monitor and assess the implementation of the waste prevention measures using qualitative or quantitative indicators and targets, notably on the quantity of waste that is generated. Further The Commission shall adopt implementing acts to establish indicators to measure the overall progress in the implementation of waste prevention measures
- Article 28: Waste management plans shall contain appropriate qualitative or quantitative indicators and targets, including on the quantity of generated waste and its treatment and on municipal waste that is disposed of or subject to energy recovery
- Article 29: Waste prevention programmes with development of effective and meaningful indicators of the environmental pressures associated with the generation of waste aimed at contributing to the prevention of waste generation at all levels, from product comparisons at Community level through action by local authorities to national measures

5.4. Macrolitter indicators and recommendations for marine litter monitoring in Europe (incl. Arctic)

Framework
Geographical scale
Beach litter
Seabed / Sediments
Floating litter and water column
Plastic ingestion by biota
Entanglement and other adverse effects on biota
EU MSFD
EU
D10C1 Primary: The composition, amount and spatial distribution of litter (excluding micro-litter) on the coastline, in the surface layer of the water column, and on the seabed, are at levels that do not cause harm to the coastal and marine environment.
For the MSFD D10C1, D10C2, D10C3 and D10C4 criteria Member States shall establish threshold values for these levels through cooperation at Union level, taking into account regional or sub-regional specificities. Threshold values are under development
Complementary assessment information on specific litter categories for artificially polymers, single use plastic (SUP) and fishing gear
 
 
D10C3 Secondary: The amount of litter and micro-litter ingested by marine animals is at a level that does not adversely affect the health of the species concerned.
For the MSFD D10C1, D10C2, D10C3 and D10C4 criteria Member States shall establish threshold values for these levels through cooperation at Union level, taking into account regional or sub-regional specificities. Threshold values are under development
Regionally agreed indicator species:
- Fulmar (North-East Atlantic)
- Loggerhead turtle (Mediterranean Sea)
D10C4 Secondary: The number of individuals of each species which are adversely affected due to litter, such as by entanglement, other types of injury or mortality, or health effects.
For the MSFD D10C1, D10C2, D10C3 and D10C4 criteria Member States shall establish threshold values for these levels through cooperation at Union level, taking into account regional or sub-regional specificities. Threshold values are under development
There are no regionally agreed indicator species yet available for assessment
OSPAR
North East Atlantic
Common indicator: Beach litter (all visible litter on the beach surface).
Corresponding to the MSFD indicator 10.1.1: The composition, amount and spatial distribution of litter (excluding micro-litter) on the coastline.
OSPAR CEMP protocol (2021) ©
Common indicator: Litter on the seabed.
Corresponding to the MSFD indicator 10.1.2: The composition, amount and spatial distribution of litter (excluding micro-litter) on the seabed.
Using e.g., IBT surveys
OSPAR CEMP protocol (2017) ©
 
n.p.
Plastic ingested by seabirds (mostly micro- and mesoplastic: < 1 mm: “Ecological indicator” for trends in marine litter (EcoQO 3.3), and “Impact on biota” indicator corresponding to the MSFD indicator 10.2.1: litter ingested by marine organisms and other impacts of litter on biota.
Ingestion of litter by sea turtles as a candidate indicator for impact of marine litter on biota.
Fulmars (>1mm) ©; shearwaters (>1mm); sea turtles (>1mm)
OSPAR CEMP protocols (2019, 2020)
n.p.
 
 
HELCOM
Baltic Sea
Core indicator:  characteristics and abundance / volume (>5mm). Monitoring units: number of litter items per 100m beach segment. Guidelines: HELCOM (2016a; 2017a).
OSPAR, UNEP/MARLIN protocols ©
Pre-core indicator: Macro-litter characteristics and abundance / volume using e.g., BIT survey protocol
 
  n.p.
 
n.p.
n.p.
Barcelona Convention
Mediterranean Sea
Common indicator 22. Trends in the amount of litter washed ashore and/or deposited on coastlines, i.e., beach litter.
Common indicator 23. Trends in the amount of litter on the seabed.
Common indicator 23: Trends in the amount of litter in the water column incl. MPs and floating litter
Candidate common indicator 24: Trends in the amount of litter ingested by or entangling marine organisms focusing on selected mammals, marine birds and marine turtles.
Candidate common indicator 24: Trends in the amount of litter ingested by or entangling marine organisms focusing on selected mammals, marine birds and marine turtles.
Entanglement of sea turtles
Bucharest Convention (BSC)
Black Sea
n.a.
UNEP protocol ©
EcoQO 4.
Common indicator: Trends in the amount of litter deposited on the seabed.
EcoQO 4.
Common indicator: Trends in the amount of litter in the water column incl. MPs and floating litter
EcoQO 4.
Common indicator: Trends in the amount of litter ingested by or entangling marine organisms focusing on selected mammals, marine birds, fish.
EcoQO 4.
Common indicator: Trends in the amount of litter ingested by or entangling marine organisms focusing on selected mammals, marine birds, fish.
AMAP
Arctic region
Recommended primary monitoring indicators: Accumulation surveys of litter at reference sites of 100 m segments on shorelines following OSPAR or NOAA guidelines 
n.p.
n.p.
Primary indicators:
Northern Fulmar (>1mm) ©
n.p.
© Recommended as core/primary indicators                         
n.p.: Not prioritized as core/primary recommended monitoring indicators
n.a.: Not available

5.5. Microlitter indicators and recommendations for marine litter monitoring in Europe (incl. Arctic)

Framework
Geographical scale
Beach litter
Seabed / Sediments
Floating litter and water column
Plastic ingestion by biota
Entanglement and other adverse effects on biota
EU MSFD
EU
D10C2 Primary: The composition, amount and spatial distribution of micro-litter on the coastline, in the surface layer of the water column, and in seabed sediment, are at levels that do not cause harm to the coastal and marine environment.
For the MSFD D10C1, D10C2, D10C3 and D10C4 criteria Member States shall establish threshold values for these levels through cooperation at Union level, taking into account regional or sub-regional specificities. Threshold values are under development.
The GES Decision sets out ‘artificial polymer materials’ and ‘other’ as assessment elements for micro-litter (particles <5 mm).
D10C3 Secondary: The amount of micro-litter ingested by marine animals is at a level that does not adversely affect the health of the species concerned.
For the MSFD D10C1, D10C2, D10C3 and D10C4 criteria Member States shall establish threshold values for these levels through cooperation at Union level, taking into account regional or sub-regional specificities. Threshold values are under development.
Litter and micro-litter should be assessed, where possible, in representative species from the following groups: birds, reptiles, fish, or invertebrates.
n.p.
OSPAR
North East Atlantic
n.p.
n.p..
Plastic ingested by fulmar: “Ecological indicator” for trends in marine litter (EcoQO 3.3), and “Impact on biota” indicator corresponding to the MSFD indicator 10.2.1.
HELCOM
Baltic Sea
n.p.
n.p.
n.p.
Barcelona Convention
Mediterranean Sea
n.a.
 
n.a.
MEDIT survey protocol; video recordings?
Common indicator 23: Trends in the amount of litter in the water column incl. MPs and on the seabed.
 
 
Bucharest Convention (BSC)
Black Sea
n.a.
EcoQO 4.
Common indicator: Trends in the amount of litter deposited on the seabed
EcoQO 4.
Common indicator: Trends in the amount of litter in the water column incl. MPs and floating litter
 
 
AMAP
Arctic region
n.p.
Recommended for aquatic sediments, size ranges 300 µm–1 mm and 1-5 mm ©
Recommended with 300 µm cut-off (or lower) in coastal waters; with 100 µm, 300 µm and 1000 µm in offshore waters ©
 
 
© Recommended as core/primary indicators                         
n.p.: Not prioritized as core/primary or candidate/secondary recommended monitoring indicators
n.a.: Not available

5.6. Plastic use, waste generation and leakage

Overall plastic use has increased steadily since 1950 with the majority (ca. 46%) of plastic use in 2019 in OECD countries in Amerca and Europe.
Figure A1: Global plastics use has quadrupled in 30 years, mainly driven by emerging economies (OECD, 2022b).
Globally, 460 million metric tonnes (Mt) of plastic were used in 2019, with the majority used as packaging or as part of construction.
Plastic application
% of total use
Amount [Mt]
Packaging
31%
142.6
Construction
17%
76.9
Other
15%
67.6
Transportation
12%
54.4
Consumer products
10%
46.7
Textiles
10%
43.9
Electronics and machinery
4%
20.0
Tyres
2%
7.7
TOTAL
100%
459.7
Table A1: Plastic use by application in 2019 (OECD, 2022a).
The most used polymers are polypropylene (PP), synthetic fibres (mainly made from PP, PET or PA, and polyethylene (HDPE, LDPE and LLDPE.
Polymer type
% of total
Amount [Mt]
Other
18%
81.0
Polypropylene (PP)
16%
72.8
Synthetic fibres
13%
60.4
HDPE
12%
55.5
LDPE, LLDPE
12%
54.3
PVC
11%
51.4
Polyethylene tereptalate (PET)
5%
24.9
PS
5%
21.1
PUR
4%
18.0
ABS, ASA, SAN
2%
8.9
Elastomers (tyres)
2%
7.7
Bioplastics
1%
2.3
Road marking coatings
0%
0.7
Marine coatings
0%
0.5
TOTAL
100%
459.7
Table A2: Plastic use by polymer type in 2019 (OECD, 2022a).
Figure A2: Detailed presentation of plastic polymers used in different application categories in 2019.
Table A3: Plastic waste generation in million metric tonnes in 2019 split into regions and applications.
Region
Building & con­struc­tion
Consumer & institu­tional products
Electrical / electronics
Industrial / machinery
Marine coatings
Other
Packaging
Personal care products
Road marking
Textile sector: clothing
Textile sector : others
Transpor­tation: other
Transpor­tation: tyres
Other Asia
1%
11%
3%
0%
0%
13%
38%
0%
0%
15%
4%
12%
2%
China
1%
13%
4%
0%
0%
17%
45%
0%
0%
8%
4%
7%
1%
Middle East and Africa
2%
13%
4%
0%
0%
18%
45%
0%
0%
5%
4%
7%
1%
Eurasia
4%
10%
4%
0%
0%
12%
32%
0%
0%
8%
4%
22%
3%
Other America
1%
14%
4%
1%
0%
19%
46%
0%
0%
4%
4%
6%
1%
OECD Pacific
12%
12%
5%
0%
0%
15%
37%
0%
0%
8%
4%
7%
1%
OECD Europe
11%
12%
4%
1%
0%
17%
39%
0%
0%
4%
4%
9%
1%
OECD America
5%
12%
4%
1%
0%
17%
38%
0%
0%
7%
4%
11%
2%
Table A4: Plastic waste generation in million metric tonnes in 2019 split into applications and polymers   
Plastic application
ABS, ASA, SAN
Bio­plastics
Elasto­mers (tyres)
Fibres
HDPE
LDPE, LLDPE
Marine coat­ings
Other
PET
PP
PS
PUR
PVC
Road marking coat­ings
Total
Building & construction
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.1
0.7
0.0
2.2
0.0
1.1
1.4
1.2
7.6
0.0
16.2
Consumer & institutional products
3.7
0.1
0.0
0.0
4.9
7.0
0.0
3.6
0.0
14.7
4.6
1.9
2.2
0.0
42.6
Electrical / electronics
2.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.4
1.2
0.0
4.4
0.0
2.8
1.3
0.7
1.1
0.0
13.9
Industrial / machinery
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.4
0.0
0.4
0.0
0.0
1.3
Marine coatings
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.5
Other
0.6
0.2
0.0
9.4
3.4
4.5
0.0
27.7
0.0
0.0
1.7
4.6
5.6
0.0
57.8
Packaging
0.0
1.3
0.0
0.0
32.2
35.3
0.0
1.6
24.8
36.3
6.2
0.4
3.8
0.0
142.0
Personal care
products
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Road marking
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.6
0.6
Textile sector: clothing
0.0
0.2
0.0
24.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
25.1
Textile sector: others
0.0
0.0
0.0
13.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
13.6
Transportation: other
0.9
0.1
0.0
3.9
1.5
0.3
0.0
18.0
0.0
6.7
0.0
2.2
0.9
0.0
34.6
Transportation: tyres
0.0
0.0
5.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.1
Total
7.3
2.1
5.1
51.8
44.7
49.2
0.5
57.6
24.8
62.0
15.2
11.3
21.2
0.6
353.3
World region
Macroplastic [Mt]
Microplastic [Mt]
Total [Mt]
United States
0.56
0.39
0.95
Canada
0.11
0.03
0.14
Other OECD America
0.56
0.07
0.63
OECD EU
0.55
0.28
0.83
OECD Non-EU
0.32
0.08
0.40
OECD Asia
0.09
0.08
0.17
OECD Oceania
0.03
0.02
0.05
Latin America
1.82
0.18
1.99
Other EU
0.07
0.02
0.09
Other Eurasia
1.40
0.11
1.51
Middle East & North Africa
1.41
0.18
1.59
Other Africa
3.28
0.19
3.47
China
4.38
0.49
4.88
India
1.94
0.26
2.21
Other non-OECD Asia
2.93
0.31
3.23
TOTAL
19.44
2.68
22.12
Table A5: Plastic leakage from different World regions for 2019 (OECD, 2022b).  
Figure A3: Estimates of plastic leakage (in million tonnes per year) from different world regions for 2019 and projected until 2060 using a business as usual scenario (OECD, 2022b).
Table A6: Leakage of macroplastics (in million tonnes per year), split into world regions and macroplastic leakage categories.
Region
Macroplastics
Littering
Marine activities
Mismanaged waste
Total
Other Asia
0.220
0.060
4.593
4.873
China
0.240
0.112
4.032
4.384
Middle East and Africa
0.142
0.024
4.516
4.682
Eurasia
0.055
0.006
1.403
1.464
Other America
0.070
0.010
1.737
1.817
OECD Pacific
0.028
0.016
0.078
0.121
OECD Europe
0.124
0.024
0.726
0.874
OECD America
0.192
0.011
1.023
1.226
Table A7: Leakage of microplastics (in million tonnes per year), split into world regions and microplastic leakage categories.
Region
Microplastics
Artificial turf
Brake dust
Marine coatings
Microbeads
Microplastics dust
Primary pellets
Road markings
Textile wash
Tyre abrasion
WW sludge
Total
Other Asia
0.0042
0.0101
0.0073
0.0007
0.2661
0.0587
0.0337
0.0008
0.1464
0.0395
0.5676
China
0.0041
0.0096
0.0071
0.0020
0.1532
0.0742
0.0447
0.0040
0.1389
0.0548
0.4927
Middle East and Africa
0.0090
0.0054
0.0072
0.0002
0.1668
0.0327
0.0331
0.0003
0.0873
0.0279
0.3700
Eurasia
0.0014
0.0022
0.0036
0.0002
0.0382
0.0177
0.0154
0.0004
0.0354
0.0153
0.1298
Other America
0.0036
0.0041
0.0023
0.0001
0.0479
0.0174
0.0195
0.0002
0.0626
0.0187
0.1764
OECD Pacific
0.0010
0.0013
0.0001
0.0002
0.0083
0.0047
0.0069
0.0003
0.0192
0.0518
0.0938
OECD Europe
0.0123
0.0054
0.0077
0.0005
0.0376
0.0293
0.0274
0.0007
0.0806
0.1551
0.3566
OECD America
0.0165
0.0081
0.0129
0.0007
0.0520
0.0444
0.0398
0.0016
0.1209
0.2000
0.4967

5.7. Gap analysis for plastic loss along the plastic value chain

Location on plastics value chain
Uncertainty source
Description
Importance
Suggestions for improving estimates
Plastic production
Losses of pellets during production and handling
Only few studies have been performed quantifying the leakage of plastics from production and handling of plastics. These studies are done in developed high-income countries and data on potential leakage from production in low- and middle-income countries is lacking.
Minor importance. Production leakage is estimated to account for 0.01% of total losses. However, production leakage leads to high local concentration of plastics which could be major issue for the local environment (UN Environment, 2018)
Better monitoring of leakage. E.g., relating estimated production volume based on feedstock inputs with measurements of plastic production leaving production plant. Better strategies and procedures for reducing/avoiding leakage of plastics during production and handling. Improved monitoring of losses. In particular, for middle- and low-income countries.
Plastic use state
Leakage from abrasion
The leakage of microplastics due to abrasion of plastic and rubber products is highly uncertain. It is well known and visible that products are abraded over time. However, the actual plastic leakage and, more importantly, the fate of the leaked plastics is highly uncertain. For instance, how much goes to air and where is it transported? How much is collected as sewage systems and where does it go? How much end up in ditches and does it stay there?
Medium importance as direct leakage from abrasion is estimated to account for ca. 8% of total plastic leakage
The share of rubber from tyres that is actually abraded was found to be a key parameter in estimates of global plastics leakage to the environment (Ryberg et al., 2019b).
 
Increased monitoring and collection of leakages and source identification to identify the potential largest leakage sources. This should be compared to known plastic uses to evaluate potential correlations between amounts used for different uses.
Plastic use state
Capture and treatment in wastewater systems
The fate of the plastics in the environment is generally poorly known. A large part of plastics is likely to be captured in sewage systems. However the actual share captured could be improved. More importantly, the subsequent fate of the plastics in the sewage is poorly known. For instance, how is the wastewater treated and what happens to the treated share, such as sludge from wastewater treatment plants.
Medium importance. Only about 2.5% of losses are estimated to be associated with sludge from wastewater treatment plants. However, a potentially large fraction of plastics lost during production, use and from littering enter the sewer system. Thus the actual amount of plastic that enters sewer system might be much larger.
Increased monitoring of wastewater in different world regions and mapping wastewater treatment and subsequent fate of wastewater sludge.
Plastic use state
Leakage from marine activities
Direct leakage of plastics from marine related activities are generally poorly accounted for in global plastic leakage models. Monitoring data on leakage is generally lacking, dated or scarce and often in combination.
Medium importance. While estimated leakage in only about 1% of total global leakage. The leaked plastics are designed to last in the marine environment. They are therefore likely to persist for longer lifetime and cause effects on the environment
Increased monitoring of leakage either by comparing inputs of marine plastic for use with outputs of marine plastic for waste management, where the difference can be seen as leaked. Most of the leakage is likely to be in middle- and low-income countries. Hence, focus should be on obtaining better data for these regions.
Plastic waste management
Littering rate and collection of littered plastics.
 
Littering rate is highly uncertain and studies monitoring or otherwise documenting the amount of plastic littering are lacking. In particular for middle- and low-income countries.
Medium importance as littering is estimated to account for ca. 5% of total plastic leakage
 
Studies focusing on measuring and quantifying littering rates in different regions and under different conditions. It is likely that drivers for littering will differ between regions. E.g., some littering might be due to bad behavior while other littering is due to lack of adequate waste management systems for correctly disposing of the plastics waste. Options and efficiency of subsequent sweeping or collection of litter should be conducted to better understand the potential fate of the littered plastic waste.
 
Handling of mismanaged waste
Information on waste treatment and handling of waste that is either mismanaged or handled via informal waste sector is scarce and must be qualified.
High importance as leakages from mismanaged waste managed is the largest source of leakage with 82% of total leaked amount
Improved mapping and characterization of local and regional waste management practice to better understand the treatment share of plastics.
 
 
Leakage from mismanaged waste
The potential leakage rate of plastics from the mismanaged waste to the environment is poorly understood. Currently, estimates are based on highly varying assumptions. The waste can be leaked via different transportation routes that are likely to be specific to the waste handling or dump site.
High importance as leakages from mismanaged waste managed is the largest source of leakage with 82% of total leaked amount. The leakage rate was also found to be the most important parameter for estimates of global leakage to the environment (Ryberg et al., 2019b).
Better monitoring of local leakage rates from e.g., dump sites are required. Potential development of models that can estimates leakage rates based on known physical characteristics about the dumpsite, such as proximity to water and the income-level of the nation/region where it is situated.
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