The presentations in chapter 6 of different policy measures to promoting NbS and relevant synergies show us that there are many different policy options for reducing biodiversity degradation, mitigating climate change, ensuring climate adaption, and reducing levels of pollution. Which policy measures will be most effective and applicable in terms of providing synergies, will depend on many factors, including the policy landscape of each country in relation to climate, biodiversity and pollution. Below, this landscape is briefly presented for each of the Nordic countries.
7.1 Sweden
Sweden has a population of 10.3 million people. The majority lives in and around Stockholm or in the southern parts of the country, whereas the population density in the northern part of Sweden is very low. Almost 70% of the Swedish land area is covered by forest and 10% of the land area consists of lakes and rivers.
Sweden is divided into 21 counties (län), and 290 municipalities. The municipalities are responsible for executing and providing environmental protection. The three main authorities for the environment are the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (Naturvårdsverket), The Swedish Chemical Agency (Kemikalieinspektionen) and the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management (Havs och Vattenmyndigheten).
Sweden has an environmental code constituting a legal framework to promote sustainable development. The code was enacted in 1999, partly aiming at reducing the number of applicable acts and do away with complex and fragmented legislation within the environmental field, and partly to address evolving environmental issues. The code covers provisions for management of land and water, water operation, biodiversity preservation, nature conservation and protection, chemical products, waste management and environmentally hazardous activities. The environmental code dictates assessment of environmental effects before conducting environmentally hazardous activity, thereby having a preventive effect. The environmental code of conduct also entails penalties and sanction charges for committing environmental crimes. As a supplement to the code, the Swedish parliament has adopted several environmental objectives divided in a generational goal, milestone targets and 16 environmental quality objectives. The environmental objectives serve as an important tool both at a national scale, as well as in the municipalities’ efforts towards sustainability.
In 2017, Sweden adopted a climate policy framework together with a climate law that presents how Sweden can live up to the Paris agreement. Sweden has a goal of zero net emissions by 2045. The law states that every part government is obliged to pursue policies that are in line with climate goals adopted by the parliament.
A “Swedish strategy for biodiversity and ecosystem services” was adopted in 2014. The strategy contributes to achieving the environmental quality objectives, with seven of the objectives from 1999 focusing on biodiversity. The strategy designates the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency to provide other administrative authorities with sufficient guidance on how to successfully achieve the goals. The County Administrative Boards are as such guided in how to ensure that ecosystem services are considered when developing green infrastructure plans, and on how to manage natural and cultural values towards preservation.
Legislation concerning air quality is defined in the air quality regulation (2010:477), environmental air quality standards have been implemented in compliance with the EU. In 2013 the bill “towards a toxin-free environment – a platform for chemicals policy” (Govt Bill 2013/14:39) was accepted.
The Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management are responsible for protecting, restoring, and monitoring freshwater and marine resources. Fishing pressures has led to reductions in many species both animals and plants. Eutrophication and acidification are high stressors for the marine environment, and of high concern in the entire Baltic Sea. Acidification is also a concern for Swedish rivers and lakes. Many of the Swedish rivers have been regulated for hydropower, which has damaged local populations of migrating fish species such as salmon.,,
7.2 Iceland
In Icelandic, approximately 6% of the land is cultivated. The rest is either used for grazing or undeveloped. It is estimated that before human settlement, 65% percent of the land area had vegetation cover, up to 40% being woodland. During colonization, the vegetation was used as building materials, fuel and grazing, and natural revegetation was kept abate by extensive grazing, volcanic activity and a harsh climate. Today, only 25% of Iceland is vegetated. This has caused soil erosion, and much of the land has been severely degraded, also contributing to GHG emissions through loss of soil carbon. It is estimated that 39% of the land is subject to extensive soil erosion, 35% is desertified, and 45% of the ecosystems are in bad condition. The two state agencies Soil Conservation Service of Iceland (SCSI) and Iceland Forest Service (IFS) were both founded in 1907, and throughout the 20th century they made significant efforts to combat soil erosion, desertification and deforestation. The annual area for restoration projects is ca. 8.000 ha.
The Ministry of the Environment, Energy and Climate is responsible for most matters concerning environmental protection and nature conservation. Local authorities implement many of the climate-related policies, and the municipalities have done considerable work in developing sustainable development policies within the framework of Local Agenda 21.
The biggest risks from climate change, Iceland faces, are glacial retreat and sea level rise, changes to marine ecosystems including ocean acidification, increased risk of landslides and coastal flooding, and increased risk of vegetation fires.
The net emissions from the Icelandic LULUCF sector are greater than from all the other sectors. Grassland, wetlands and cropland are the main sources within the sector. Iceland is not a member of the EU but is a part of the European Economic Area agreement. As such, Iceland closely collaborates with the EU on the climate agenda and is a party to the Paris agreement. Iceland participates in emissions trading (EU-ETS) and has introduced the EU climate laws: Effort Sharing Regulation & Regulation on LULUCF.
Iceland is committed to cutting emissions by 55%, aligned with the aspirations of the EU countries, and aspire to be climate neutral in 2040. Iceland’s emission profile differs from many other wealthy countries: 75% of heating and electricity in Iceland is provided by renewables (mainly hydro and geothermal energy), and the electrical consumption is one of the highest per capita in the world. 79% of the generated electricity is used in heavy industry; predominantly by aluminium smelters. Iceland has great opportunities for climate mitigation by carbon sequestration done by afforestation, revegetation, and halting emissions from the soil by restoring previously drained wetlands.
The latest National Biodiversity Strategy was adopted by the government in 2008. In 2018, 56 vascular plants, 41 bird species, and 6 mammal species (terrestrial and marine) were on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Iceland is a member of the biodiversity group of the Arctic council, CAFF. The main act for nature protection is the Act on Nature Conservation No44/1999.
The air quality in Iceland is good. The biggest concern is particulate matter from studded tires during the winter. In some parts of Iceland, H2S has risen significantly, originating from geothermal powerplants. Parts of the Icelandic highlands have large sandy areas which, if there are strong winds, can cause particle pollution through sandstorms.
Iceland has ratified the EU Water Framework Directive, 2022–2027 is the second cycle under WFD obligations. Freshwater resources are abundant in Iceland and water is generally unpolluted. However, several are disturbed by hydro power construction; both reservoirs for water storage and disruption of water flows.
7.3 Norway
Forests and mountains cover a large part of Norway’s terrestrial area. Only 3% of the land is suitable for agricultural practices. The Norwegian oceanic territories are six times bigger than the terrestrial land area.
There are three different levels of public administration in Norway. The national level, the regional level comprised of the county governor, the county council and the county municipality (“Fylkeskommune”), and lastly the local level made up by the municipalities. The county municipalities and the county governor have key responsibilities when it comes to environmental management. The municipalities have a main responsibility for land-use planning and also have certain responsibilities when to comes to pollution.
Norway is party to the Paris Agreement, and as an EEA member, Norway is working together with the rest of the EU to achieve their climate goal. Norway aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 50–55% in 2030, and by 90–95% by 2050 compared to 1990 levels. This is in line with the EU ambitions and Norway has also implemented the EU climate law. In 2021, the Climate Action Plan 2021–2030 was published, outlaying concrete policy actions to achieve the goal of 55% reduction in 2030. Some of the main policy measures are based on the polluters pay principle, especially within the oil sector. Even though 90% of Norwegian energy consumption is covered by hydropower from the country’s 1600 hydropower plants, and wind power almost covers the last 10%, the biggest sources of income in Norway are oil and natural gas extraction and exportation.
The Norwegian Act on Biodiversity Management from 2009 is still in effect. The act is the legal foundation for better protection and appointment of new protected areas. Currently, 289 species are red listed as critically endangered in Norway, 959 are strongly endangered, and 1504 are estimated to be vulnerable. 30% of terrestrial nature types are assessed to be threatened.
Near 18% of Norwegian terrestrial territory is currently under protection, this is mainly mountainous areas (“høyfjellsområder”). Only 3% of Norwegian marine territory is under protection. The main threats to terrestrial biodiversity in Norway are land use and land use changes; other threats are pollution, invasive species, oceanic acidification, and climate change which especially is a threat to the arctic areas of Norway. In the government’s latest biodiversity strategy, the importance of the municipalities’ role is emphasized due to their impact on land-use management.
In 2008, the EU Water Framework Directive went into force in Norway. The water quality in Norway is generally good, the biggest impacts are excess fertilization, environmental pollutions, invasive species, and physical changes to the water course such as channelization. 80% of the coastal waters have good or very good quality. Regional water plans are being reassessed every fifth year.Regulations for pollution are covered by the pollution law updated in 2020. The biggest air polluters in Norway are particulate matter (PM10 and PM2,5) and NO2 mainly from roads and urban environments.
7.4 Finland
Almost two thirds of Finland’s land area are covered in forest. Lakes and rivers cover 10%. 6% of the land area is used for agriculture. The Finnish population is approximately 5.5 mill people, and about 20% live in the capital of Helsinki.
Finland has 19 provinces and 310 municipalities, and the governance is divided in the national, regional, and municipal level. The regional councils have limited self-governing power. At the regional level, the duties are divided between six regional state administrative agencies and 15 centres for economic development, transport, and the environment. The latter are responsible for the regional implementation of environmental protection, nature protection, monitoring the environment and water resources. The municipalities are responsible for land use planning, maintenance of local infrastructure and the municipal environment water and wastewater management. The environmental protection act from 2014, is still in force and was amended in 2019.
Finland is committed to the Paris Agreement and aims to be climate neutral by 2035. A new act on climate change went into force in the summer of 2022, stating that GHG absorptions shall continue to increase beyond 2035, and by 2040 Finland shall absorb more CO2 than they emit. The act also includes the land use sector, and the related measures focus on wasteland afforestation and rewetting agricultural soil on former peatlands suitable for rewetting. Both measures are expected to increase carbon sequestration. Adopting more sustainable agricultural practices that allows carbon to build up in the soil is another measure suggested. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry is currently working on the development of a climate plan for implementation.
The Finnish Ministry of the Environment is in the process of reforming the existing legislation for nature conservation as well as the nature conservation act; the current legislation is from 1996. One of nine Finnish species are threatened, and approximately half of the different habitat types are threatened as well. One of the biggest threats is deforestation; currently, 90% of the Finnish forests are available for wood production. Finland has several large programmes that targets biodiversity including the Helmi Habitats Programme and the METSO programme. Finland adopted a strategy for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in Finland in 2012 for the period of 2012–2020 containing 105 actions. A new strategy for the current decade is underway.
The biggest air pollutants in Finland are PAHs and ozone. A National Air Pollution Control Programme was adopted in 2019, including measures to implement EU’s National Ceilings Directive. The latest data for the ecological status of surface waters are from 2019, 87% of lake- and 68% of river surfaces were estimated to be in good- or very good condition. The conditions are best in the northern and eastern parts of the country, and worst in the south that has the highest population density. The biggest threat to surface waters is eutrophication for lakes, especially smaller lakes, and siltation of rivers. Most of the coastal waters are classified as moderate or in poor condition, especially in the south. There are approximately 240 regulation projects in Finland where water ways have been somewhat altered for hydropower production, fish farming, flood protection, water supply etc., the Finnish restoration projects are affecting more than 300 lakes and reservoirs. A large part of the regulation projects was implemented in the second half of the 20th century; today several initiatives work on mitigating the harm done by some of the regulation projects. Marine waters are governed in alignment with the Act on Environmental Protection in Maritime transport and the act on the protection of the sea.
7.5 Denmark
Land use in Denmark is dominated by agriculture (60%), followed by forestry (15,5%). Urban areas, infrastructure and industry make up 14%, while 10% is nature areas.
The Danish environmental regulation and spatial planning is governed from three levels; state, regional and municipal – however, with no actual planning authority placed with the regions. The Ministry of Environment is overall responsible for environmental and nature concerns in spatial planning. This is implemented through different governing documents, including the Danish Strategy on Biodiversity. Other environmental legislations influencing land-use planning and protecting nature include Acts on nature protection, environmental protection, water environments, forestry and the ocean. Several laws make up the regulations related to biodiversity in Denmark. This includes the Environmental Protection Act, the Nature Protection Act, the Watercourse Act, the Forestry Act and the Planning Act.
The municipalities are responsible for the planning and operational tasks of nature management, including biodiversity protection, within the framework conditions defined by the national government. Spatial planning is prepared through municipal comprehensive plans that include descriptions of nature quality and protected areas. Lastly, for developing projects or construction, the municipalities develop local plans, which are more detailed than the municipality plans and cover smaller areas.
Municipalities are also obliged to make climate adaptation plans that map risk of flooding as part of or in addition to the comprehensive plan. More general municipal climate action plans are currently being developed in 96 out of 98 Danish municipalities through the voluntary program DK2020, where the municipalities are applying the international standard “The Climate Action Planning Framework”, which is also being applied in the C40 cities. Denmark has a greenhouse gas emission reduction goal of 70% for 2030 as decided by the Danish Climate Act and, as a part of the Paris Agreement, a goal of net zero emissions in 2050.,
The Danish strategy for biodiversity “Nature plan Denmark” was published in 2014. It outlines the most urgent threats to biodiversity in Denmark, mainly land use for agriculture and forestry, increased nutrient loading and pollution. In the strategy, focus is also put on the connection between biodiversity loss and climate change, and on the need for solutions that promote both issues. It states that the government “has focus on synergies between measures on the climate arena and protection of biodiversity” (p. 51). Concretely, the government wishes to integrate nature protection and biodiversity into the climate effort, for example through taking lowland agricultural soils out of production and carrying through LIFE-climate projects, which are EU funded large-scale projects aiming to implement innovative climate responses.
The Nature and Biodiversity package was approved by the Danish Government and supporting parties in 2020. Through this agreement, the parties are aiming to revise the legal framework on nature and supply funding for projects that promote nature and biodiversity in Denmark. Focus lies on a strategy for protection of endangered species, appointing “untouched” protected forest areas and establishment of new national parks. The package also includes climate change as a focus theme. The preceding nature package which was implemented by the previous government in 2016 had climate and nature synergies as a focal point. One of the specific measures of this policy was a fund of 14.4 mil. DKK for projects that provided synergies between natural values and climate adaptation capacity. In 2019, 4.439 out of all 13.276 Danish species (animals, plants and fungi) were on the IUCN red list of threatened species.
The main air pollutants in Denmark are PM2,5, PM10, NOx, and O3. Road transport is the main source of NOx-emissions. The main source for PM2,5 is non-industrial combustion, and for PM10 it is non-industrial combustion and agriculture. The pollutants with the biggest environmental impacts are aerial depositions of N-compounds. Large parts of the Danish aquatic environment are eutrophicated, this is especially a problem in coastal waters where eutrophication has led to areas of oxygen depletion. Leaching of nutrients from agriculture and sewage are the main drivers of eutrophication. A lot of Danish streams have been physically altered up through the 20th century creating poor living conditions for the biota. Most of the legislation aimed to target nutrient pollution is defined through the implementation of the Nitrates Directive and the Water Framework Directive through national action plans.