7 References

Aakre, I., Evensen, L.T., Kjellevold., M., Dahl, L., Henjum, S., Alexander, J., Madsen, L. & Markhus, M.W. (2020). Iodine Status and Thyroid Function in a Group of Seaweed Consumers in Norway. Nutrients, 12(11):3483. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7697291/
Aakre, I., Solli, D.D, Markhus, M.W., Mæhre, H.K., Dahl, L., Henjum, S., Alexander, J., Korneliussen, P-A., Madsen, L. & Kjellevold, M. (2021). Commercially available kelp and seaweed products – valuable iodine source or risk of excess intake? Food & Nutrition Research, 65. doi: 10.29219/fnr.v65.7584
ANSES. (2018). Seaweed consumption: remain vigilant to the risk of excess iodine intake. France:   https://www.anses.fr/en/content/seaweed-consumption-remain-vigilant-risk-excess-iodine-intake
ANSES. (2020). ANSES makes recommendations to limit cadmium exposure from consumption of edible seaweed Food and Nutrition (Vol. 27/07/2020). France: ANSES. https://www.anses.fr/en/content/anses-makes-recommendations-limit-cadmium-exposure-consumption-edible-seaweed
Bak, U. G. (2019). Seaweed cultivation in the Faroe Islands: An investigation of the biochemical composition of selected macroalgal species, optimised seeding technics, and open-ocean cultivation methods from a commercial perspective. PhD thesis, Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen. https://backend.orbit.dtu.dk/ws/portalfiles/portal/183321338/THESIS_URD_FINAL_sendt.pdf
Banach, J.L., Hoek-van den Hil, E.F. & van der Fels-Klerx, H.L. (2020). Food safety hazards in the European seaweed chain. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 19: 332–364. DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12523
BfR. (2007). Health risks linked to high iodine levels in dried algae
Updated BfR Opinion No. 026/2007, 22 June 2004. https://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/349/health_risks_linked_to_high_iodine_levels_in_dried_algae.pdf
Blikra, M. J., Løvdal, T., Vaka, M.R., Roiha, I.S., Lunestad, B.T., Lindseth, C., Skipnes, D. (2019).    Assessment of food quality and microbial safety of brown macroalgae (Alaria esculenta and Saccharina latissima). J Sci Food Agric. 2019 Feb; 99(3): 1198-1206. DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.9289
Blikra, M. J., Henjum, S., & Aakre, I. (2022). Iodine from brown algae in human nutrition, with an emphasis on bioaccessibility, bioavailability, chemistry, and effects of processing: A systematic review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 21(2), 1517–1536. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12918
CEVA. (2019). Edible seaweed and microalgae Regulatory status in France and Europe.
Retrieved from https://www.ceva-algues.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/CEVA-
Edible-algae-FR-and-EU-regulatory-update-2019.pdf
Concepcion, A., DeRosia-Banick, K., & Balcom, N. (2020). Seaweed Production and Processing in Connecticut: A Guide to Understanding and Controlling Potential Food Safety Hazards. A companion manual to the 4th Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) Fish and Fishery Products Hazards and Controls Guidance. In C. S. Grant, U. Extension, C. D. o. Agriculture & B. o. Aquaculture (Eds.). Connecticut.
DOH. (2021). The Directorate of Health, Iceland. 18.11.2021. Joð á meðgöngu (landlaeknir.is)
de la Iglesia,P., del Río,V. and Diogène, J. (2014). The sugar kelp Saccharina latissima is a potential source of the emerging toxin, Pinnatoxin-G, in cold waters. 16th International Conference on Harmful Algae, 27–31 October, Wellington, New Zealand.
Dos Santos Fernandes De Araujo, R., Peteiro, C. (2021). Algae as food and food supplements in Europe EUR 30779 EN. Luxembourg.
Duinker, A., Kleppe, M., Fjære, E., Biancarosa, I., Heldal, H. E., Dahl, L., & Lunestad, B. T. (2020). Knowledge update on macroalgae food and feed safety-based on data generated in the period 2014 – 2019 by the Institute of Marine Research, Norway.
Duinker, A., Roiha, I., Amlund, H., Dahl, L., Kögel, T., Maage, A., & Lunestad, B. (2016). Potential risks posed by macroalgae for application as feed and food - a Norwegian perspective. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307956500_Potential_risks_posed_by_macroalgae_for_application_as_feed_and_food_-_a_Norwegian_perspective
DVFA. (2014). Metaller i tang. Resultater 2014. In Fødevarestyrelsen (Ed.), Centralt koordineerede laboratorieprojekter slutrapport.
DVFA. (2015). Kainsyre i søl (Palmaria palmata) 2014–15 . Kontrolkampagner - analyse- og slutrapportskabelon (foedevarestyrelsen.dk)
DVFA. (2021). General information on seaweed as a foodstuff. Tang som fødevare (foedevarestyrelsen.dk) https://www.foedevarestyrelsen.dk/Leksikon/Sider/Tang-som-foedevare.aspx
DVFA. (2022). Information on harvesting of seaweed for human consumption. Når du plukker tang til at spise (foedevarestyrelsen.dk) https://www.foedevarestyrelsen.dk/Selvbetjening/Guides/Sider/Naar-du-plukker-tang-til-at-spise.aspx
DVFA. (2022a). Information on harvesting for food business operators. Når en fødevarevirksomhed dyrker eller høster tang eller mikroalger (foedevarestyrelsen.dk) https://www.foedevarestyrelsen.dk/Selvbetjening/Guides/Sider/Naar-en-foedevarevirksomhed-dyrker-eller-hoester-tang.aspx
EFSA. (2006). Tolerable upper intake levels for vitamins and minerals — Scientific Committee on Food — Scientific Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies. February, 2006 http://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/efsa_rep/blobserver_assets/ndatolerableuil.pdf
EFSA. (2010). Scientific Opinion on Lead in Food. EFSA Journal, 8(4), 1570. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1570
EFSA. (2012). "Cadmium dietary exposure in the European population." EFSA Journal 10(1): 2551. https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2551
EFSA. (2012). Scientific Opinion on the risk for public health related to the presence of mercury and methylmercury in food. (1831–4732). https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2985.
EFSA. (2014a). Dietary exposure to inorganic arsenic in the European population. EFSA Journal, 12(3), 3597. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2014.3597
EFSA. (2014b). Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for Iodine. EFSA Journal, 12(5), 3660. Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for iodine | EFSA (europa.eu)
EFSA. (2020). Update of the risk assessment of nickel in food and drinking water. [Request from European Commission]. EFSA Journal, 18 (11), 6268. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2020.6268
EFSA. (2022). Scientific Committee, minutes of the 108th Plenary meeting. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/2022-05/Minutes%20108th%20SC%20Plenary_1.pdf
EC. (2004). Regulation (EC) No 852/2004 of the European Parliament and the Council of 29 April 2004 on the hygiene of foodstuffs. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32004R0852&from=EN.
EC. (2005). Commission Regulation (EC) No. 2073/2005 of 15 November 2005 on microbiological criteria for foodstuffs. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:02005R2073-20140601&from=DA
EC. (2006). Commission Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 of 19 December 2006 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs. Document 02006R1881-20220701. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2006/1881/oj
EC. (2011). Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011 on the provision of food information to consumers, amending Regulations (EC) No 1924/2006 and (EC) No 1925/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council, and repealing Commission Directive 87/250/EEC, Council Directive 90/496/EEC, Commission Directive 1999/10/EC, Directive 2000/13/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, Commission Directives 2002/67/EC and 2008/5/EC and Commission Regulation (EC) No 608/2004.
EC. (2013). Regulation (EU) No 1379/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2013 on the common organisation of the markets in fishery and aquaculture products, amending Council Regulations (EC) No 1184/2006 and (EC) No 1224/2009 and repealing Council Regulation (EC) No 104/2000. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A02013R1379-20200425.
EC. (2016). Commission Recommendation (EU) 2016/1111 of 6 July 2016 on the monitoring of nickel in food. Official Journal of the European Union, 183.
EC. (2018). COMMISSION RECOMMENDATION (EU) 2018/464 of 19 March 2018 on the monitoring of metals and iodine in seaweed, halophytes and products based on seaweed. Official Journal of the European Union.
EC. (2022). Commission recommendation (EU) 2022/1431 of 24 August 2022 on the monitoring of perfluoroalkyl substances in food. Publications Office (europa.eu)
FAO. (2018). The global status of seaweed production, trade and utilization. Globefish Research Programme (Vol. 125). Rome.
FAO. (2020). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020 Sustainability in Action. Rome.
FAO. (2021a). Global status of seaweed production, trade and utilization. Seaweed Innovation Forum Belize 28 May 2021.
FAO. (2021b). Seaweeds and microalgae: an overview for unlocking their potential in global aquaculture development FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular (Vol. 1229).
FAO. (2022). Thinking about the future of food safety. A foresight report. Rome.
FAO and WHO. (2022). Report of the expert meeting on food safety for seaweed – Current status and future perspectives. Rome, 28–29 0ctober 2021. Food Safety and Quality Series No. 13. Rome. https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cc0846en
FSAI. (2020). Safety Considerations of Seaweed and Seaweed-derived Foods Available on the Irish Market. https://www.fsai.ie/SafetyConsiderations_SeaweedAndSeaweedDerivedFoods_IrishMarket/
Groufh-Jacobsen, S., Hess, S. Y., Aakre, I., Folven Gjengedal, E. L., Blandhoel Pettersen, K., & Henjum, S. (2020). Vegans, Vegetarians and Pescatarians Are at Risk of Iodine Deficiency in Norway. Nutrients, 12 (11), 3555. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/12/11/3555
Indergaard, M. (2010). Tang og tare - i hovedsak norske brunalger: Forekomster, forskning og anvendelse Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet. https://ntnuopen.ntnu.no/ntnu-xmlui/handle/11250/228180
Jönsson, M., Allahgholi, L., Sardari, R. R. R., Hreggviðsson, G. O., & Nordberg Karlsson, E. (2020). Extraction and Modification of Macroalgal Polysaccharides for Current and Next-Generation Applications. Molecules, 25(4), 930.
JRC. (2019). Algae as food and food supplements in Europe https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC125913
Kleppe, M. (2016). Kadmium, uorganisk arsen og jod i dyrket og viltvoksende butare ( Alaria esculenta ) og sukkertare ( Saccharina latissima ). Master’s thesis. University of Bergen. Bergen Open Research Archive: Kadmium, uorganisk arsen og jod i dyrket og viltvoksende butare (Alaria esculenta) og sukkertare (Saccharina latissima) (uib.no)
Kollander, B., Sand, S., Almerud, P., Ankarberg, E. H., Concha, G., Barregård, L., & Darnerud, P. O. (2019). Inorganic arsenic in food products on the Swedish market and a risk-based intake assessment. Science of The Total Environment, 672, 525–535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.289
Kusumi, E., Tanimoto, T., Hosoda, K., Tsubokura, M., Hamaki, T., Takahashi, K., & Kami, M. (2017). Multiple Norovirus Outbreaks Due to Shredded, Dried, Laver Seaweed in Japan. Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology, 38(7), 885–886. doi: DOI: 10.1017/ice.2017.70
Løvdal, T., Lunestad, B. T., Myrmel, M., Rosnes, J. T., & Skipnes, D. (2021). Microbiological Food Safety of Seaweeds. Foods, 10(11), 2719. https://mdpi-res.com/d_attachment/foods/foods-10-02719/article_deploy/foods-10-02719.pdf
Matis, (2021). Includes the following publications: Pétursdóttir, Á. H., Einarsdóttir, B., Guðmundsdóttir, E. E., Desnica, N., Sim, R., . . . Wild, K. (2021). Seaweed supplementation to mitigate methane (CH4) emissions by cattle (SeaCH4NGE-PLUS); Þóra Valsdóttir, Karl Gunnarsson, 2019. Efnasamsetning sölva – Árstíðarsveiflur. Matis report 11–19; Þóra Valsdóttir, Karl Gunnarsson, 2011. Eiginleikar sölva. Áhrif staðsetningar og árstíma. Matís report 14–11; Þóra Valsdóttir, Símon Sturluson, 2014. Gæðaþættir við vinnslu og verkun beltisþara (Saccharina latissima). Matis report 27–14. https://unglobalcompact.org/library/5743. Matis, Iceland.
Monteiro M. Sá., Sloth, J., Holdt, S., & Hansen, M. (2019). Analysis and Risk Assessment of Seaweed. EFSA Journal, 17(S2), e170915. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2019.e170915
NFSA. (2016). The Norwegian Food Safety Authority advice to consumers about seaweed.:   https://www.matportalen.no/uonskedestoffer_i_mat/tema/miljogifter/er_det_trygt_aa_spise_tang_og_tare
NFSA. (2019). The Norwegian Food Safety Authority advice on food safety of seaweed to business operators  https://www.mattilsynet.no/fisk_og_akvakultur/nye_marine_arter/tang_og_tare/
NFSA. (2020). The Norwegian Food Safety Authority advice consumers to avoid products from Laminaria digitata because of high levels of inorganic arsenic  https://www.matportalen.no/matvaregrupper/tema/diverse_retter_produkter_og_ingredienser/mattilsynet_advarer_mot_aa_spise_fingertare
Nielsen, C. W., Holdt, S. L., Sloth, J. J., Marinho, G. S., Sæther, M., Funderud, J., & Rustad, T. (2020). Reducing the High Iodine Content of Saccharina latissima and Improving the Profile of Other Valuable Compounds by Water Blanching. Foods, 9(5), 569.
Norwegian Seaweed Association AS. (2021). Industry guidelines Version 2.1 – 12.2021 Cultivation, harvesting and handling of sugar kelp and winged kelp. https://www.norseaweed.no/seaweed
Pétursdóttir, Á. H., Einarsdóttir, B., Guðmundsdóttir, E. E., Desnica, N., Sim, R., Kuenzel, S., Rodehutscord, M., Titze, N,.‘ Wild, K. (2023). Seaweed supplementation to mitigate methane (CH4) emissions by cattle (SeaCH4NGE-PLUS).
Pétursdóttir, Á. H., & Gunnlaugsdóttir, H. (2019). Selective and fast screening method for inorganic arsenic in seaweed using hydride generation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (HG-ICPMS). Microchemical Journal, 144, 45–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2018.08.055
Pétursdóttir, Á. H. ofl, unpublished results.
Reykdal, Ó., Jörundsdóttir, H. Ó., Desnica, N., Hauksdóttir, S., Ragnarsdóttir, u., Vrac, A., Pálmadóttir, H. (2011). Næringargildi sjávarafurða. Meginefni, steinefni, snefilefni og fitusýrur í lokaafurðum Matis report (Vol. 33–11).
RASFF. (2019). European Commission, & Directorate-General for Health and Food Safety. Reference 2019.3003
Roleda, M. Y., Skjermo, J., Marfaing, H., Jónsdóttir, R., Rebours, C., Gietl, A., Stengel, D.B. & Nitschke, U. (2018). Iodine content in bulk biomass of wild-harvested and cultivated edible seaweeds: Inherent variations determine species-specific daily allowable consumption. Food Chemistry, 254, 333–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.02.024
Roleda, M. Y., Marfaing, H., Desnica, N., Jónsdóttir, R., Skjermo, J., Rebours, C., & Nitschke, U. (2019). Variations in polyphenol and heavy metal contents of wild-harvested and cultivated seaweed bulk biomass: Health risk assessment and implication for food applications. Food Control, 95, 121–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.07.031
Snæbjörnsson, Á., & Valdimarsdóttir, y. (1996). Söl – Rannsóknir á nokkrum þáttum hreinleika og hollustu Freyr (Vol. 92, pp. 329–333).
Stedt, K., Gustavsson, O., Kollander, B., Undeland, I., Toth, G. B., & Pavia, H. (2022a). Cultivation of Ulva fenestrata using herring production process waters increases biomass yield and protein content. Frontiers in Marine Science, 1762. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.988523
Stedt, K., Steinhagen, S., Trigo, J. P., Kollander, B., Undeland, I., Toth, G. B., Wendin, K., Pavia, H. (2022b). Post-harvest cultivation with seafood process waters improves protein levels of Ulva fenestrata while retaining important food sensory attributes. Frontiers in Marine Science, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.991359
Steinhagen, S., Enge, S., Cervin, G., Larsson, K., Edlund, U., Schmidt, A., . . . Toth, G. (2022). Harvest Time Can Affect the Optimal Yield and Quality of Sea Lettuce (Ulva fenestrata) in a Sustainable Sea-Based Cultivation. Frontiers in Marine Science, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.816890
Stévant, P., Marfaing, H., Duinker, A., Fleurence, J., Rustad, T., Sandbakken, I., & Ai:, C. (2017). Biomass soaking treatments to reduce potentially undesirable compounds in the edible seaweeds sugar kelp (Saccharina latissima) and winged kelp (Alaria esculenta) and health risk estimation for human consumption. J of Appl Phycol, 30(3), 2047–2060. doi: 10.1007/s10811-017-1343-8
Stévant, P., Duinker, A., Emblem Larssen, W., Liberg Krook, J., Mjelde Birkeland I., Brunborg Bjelland LA., Chapman, A., Hogstad, S., Nilsen McStay, R., Sveier, H. (2021). Methods for iodine-reduction of sugar kelp to produce safe, flavourful and nutritious ingredient to the food industry. Final report from the SensAlgae project. Møreforsking report, vol 2115. Møreforsking. https://www.moreforsk.no/publikasjoner/rapporter/marin/methods-for-iodine-reduction-of-sugar-kelp-to-produce-safe-flavourful-and-nutritious-ingredient-to-the-food-industry/1074/3569/
Swedish Food Agency. (2015). Inorganic arsenic in rice and rice products. Part 1. Survey, part 2. Risk Assessment, Part 3. Risk management. Swedish Food Agency report series (Vol. 16/2015): Swedish Food Agency. https://www.livsmedelsverket.se/globalassets/publikationsdatabas/rapporter/2015/a-survey-of-inorganic-arsenic-in-rice-and-rice-products-on-the-swedish-market-2015---part-1.pdf
Swedish Food Agency. (2017). Swedish Market Basket Survey 2015 – per capita-based analysis of nutrients and toxic compounds in market baskets and assessment of benefit or risk. Swedish Food Agency report series (Vol. 26/2017): Swedish Food Agency. https://www.livsmedelsverket.se/om-oss/publikationer/sok-publikationer/artiklar/2017/2017-swedish-market-basket-survey-2015-per-capita
Swedish Food Agency. (2022). Information about iodine on web page of Swedish Food Agency https://www.livsmedelsverket.se/livsmedel-och-innehall/naringsamne/salt-och-mineraler1/jod
Trigo, J. P., Stedt, K., Schmidt, A. E. M., Kollander, B., Edlund, U., Nylund, G., Pavia, H., Abdollahi, M., Undeland, I. (2022). Mild blanching prior to pH-shift processing of Saccharina latissima retains protein extraction yields and amino acid levels of extracts while minimizing iodine content. Food Chemistry, 404, 134576. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.134576
Ward, G. M., Faisan Jr, J. P., Cottier-Cook, E. J., Gachon, C., Hurtado, A. Q., Lim, P. E., Matoju, I., Msuya, F.E., Bass, D., Brodie, J. (2019). A review of reported seaweed diseases and pests in aquaculture in Asia. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 51(4), 815–828. https://doi.org/10.1111/jwas.12649
WHO. (2017) Web page of WHO. Mercury and health. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mercury-and-health
WHO. (2022). Web page of WHO. Ten chemicals of public health concern. https://www.who.int/news-room/photo-story/photo-story-detail/10-chemicals-of-public-health-concern
Wirenfeldt C.B., Sørensen, J.S., Kreissig, K.J., Hyldig, G., Holdt, S.L., Hansen, L.T. (2022). Post-harvest quality changes and shelf-life determination of washed and blanched sugar kelp (Saccharina latissima). Front. Food. Sci. Technol., Doi:10.3389/frfst.2022.1030229
Go to content
Nordic Council of Ministers I www.norden.org/publications I pub@norden.org