Determinants influencing dietary patterns and food security

Photo: Derek Malou / visitfaroeislands.com

The food systems and dietary patterns in Greenland and the Faroe Islands are due to their remoteness and unique geographical, climatic, and cultural contexts, distinctly different from those in other Nordic countries. Greenland, in particular, stands out due to its extreme climatic conditions and remoteness.

There has been growing focus on food security and food sovereignty within both research and policy in these Nordic Arctic regions (Lyberth Hauptmann, 2024). This involves efforts to ensure that people have access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food while also meeting cultural, social, and spiritual needs. These elements are crucial for Nordic Arctic, where promoting healthy and sustainable food systems requires navigating the complex interplay between the nutritional, social, and cultural significance of traditional diets and the issues related to food accessibility, availability, and affordability, as well as challenges posed by contamination risks of traditional diets.

The following section will delve deeper into the key determinants that influence dietary patterns and food security in Greenland and the Faroe Islands through the lens of the Nordic Food Behaviour Framework (Figure 1), presented in the report Policy tools for sustainable and healthy eating: Enabling a food transition in the Nordic countries.

FOOD-RELATED Determinants	person-related determinants	Socio-environmental determinants
Biologically-determined predispoitions: Taste, smell, texture Hunger / fullness mechanisms Sensory specific satiety	Intrapersonal factors: Beliefs, attitudes, motivations, values, cultural and social norms Knowledge and skills, educational level Age, gender, ethnic minority	Physical enviroment: Food availability and accessibility Social/cultural enviroment: Cultural practices Social structures
Individual experience with food appeal	Interpersonal factors: Family practices and social networks Social status	Economic enviroment: Price, income level Food affordability

FOOD-RELATED Determinants

person-related determinants

Socio-environmental determinants

Biologically-determined predispoitions:

Taste, smell, texture
Hunger / fullness mechanisms
Sensory specific satiety

Intrapersonal factors:

Beliefs, attitudes, motivations, values, cultural and social norms
Knowledge and skills, educational level
Age, gender, ethnic minority

Physical enviroment:

Food availability and accessibility

Social/cultural enviroment:

Cultural practices
Social structures

Individual experience with food appeal

Interpersonal factors:

Family practices and social networks
Social status

Economic enviroment:

Price, income level
Food affordability

Figure 1 Food Behaviour Framework applied to Nordic conditions: factors influencing food choices and dietary behaviour. Source: Jungsberg et al., 2024.

Socio-environmental determinants

The primary focus in this policy brief is on socio-environmental determinants, as these factors are often more susceptible to change compared to food- and person-related determinants. Socio-environmental determinants include broader, external aspects that can be influenced through targeted policy interventions (Jungsberg et al., 2024).

Physical environment

In Greenland and the Faroe Islands, the physical environment – shaped by unique climatic conditions, accessibility and infrastructure challenges – plays a crucial role in influencing food availability and accessibility. Both regions rely heavily on imported food and essential inputs, such as fuel, to sustain their needs. A study by Vestergård and Rustad (2022) estimated food self-sufficiency in Greenland and the Faroe Islands—defined as the proportion of food produced and consumed within a region, excluding exports—to be only 17% in Greenland and 22% in the Faroe Islands. However, this level of self-sufficiency can vary significantly depending on settlement type and accessibility.

In smaller and remote settlements in Greenland, limited accessibility during winter forces communities to rely on scarce supplies and inconsistent deliveries which adversely affect the reliability, quality, and freshness of food items—thereby impacting food security (AHDR, 2014; Bjerregaard et al., 2021; Goldhar & Ford, 2010). At the same time these challenges force communities to rely more heavily on locally sourced country foods (interview 1). This is further supported by study findings indicating that country foods —obtained through hunting, fishing, and gathering, whether for subsistence or recreation—constitutes 61% of the diet in Qeqertarsuaq, a small community in central West Greenland (Ramage et al., 2022).

Additionally, rapid environmental changes driven by climate change significantly affect life in the Arctic, posing challenges to food availability, safety, and security. These include physical impacts such as permafrost thaw, shifts in the availability of marine resources, and a reduction in safe harvesting days, all of which impact the subsistence activities (Ramage et al., 2022).

Economic environment

Food systems in Greenland and the Faroe Islands, like elsewhere, are susceptible to external shocks, such as economic disruptions and disputes. For example, a recent strike by labour unions in the Faroe Islands led to fuel shortages and service disruptions, significantly affecting food security and placing considerable strain on society (Local.fo, 2024, interview 2).

As in other regions, prices and income levels are decisive factors in shaping dietary patterns. However, in these Nordic Arctic environments, the particularly high cost of locally sourced nutritious and fresh foods often makes them less affordable to many, especially low-income households. Consequently, many residents who depend on market foods frequently resort to cheaper, less nutritious options (AHDR, 2014;Goldhar & Ford, 2010; Lytken Larsen et al., 2019; Macdonald et al., 2015). In Greenland, both imported and local foods are significantly more expensive than in Denmark, with costs on the east coast being slightly higher than on the west coast.

Cultural practices and traditions

A key distinguishing feature of the food systems in Greenland and the Faroe Islands is the role of traditional subsistence activities. These activities provide essential, nutritious foods that are otherwise expensive or unavailable through imports, while also supporting social well-being, cultural identity, and community life in these regions (Macdonald et al., 2015; Svanberg, 2021). Communal food sharing and trading, along with open markets, form an integral part of the Greenlandic and Faroese food systems (Goldhar & Ford, 2010; Líggjasardóttir Johannesen et al., 2021). Governed by complex rules based on kinship and other social relationships, they play a vital role in supporting both mental and physical health (Goldhar & Ford, 2010).

Many global and regional initiatives focusing on healthy and sustainable diets are missing a very important aspect: the cultural context of food. This includes geographical, cultural, and physical factors, such as the genetic backgrounds of different populations. When we talk about food, we should not talk only about nutrition alone.

Aviaja Lyberth Hauptmann, Associate Professor, Head of SILA Department, University of Greenland

A decline in local food consumption in Greenland and the Faroe Islands can be attributed to various socio-economic and environmental factors (AHDR, 2014; Macdonald et al., 2015). A significant challenge is the diminishing traditional knowledge among younger generations, especially in extracting and processing various types of animal fat into locally made dishes. Preserving traditional Greenlandic and Faroese gastronomy thus hinges on sustaining and transferring this knowledge, which is currently at risk (Svanberg, 2021). Recognising the importance of local culinary traditions and subsistence activities, both the Greenlandic and Faroese ministers have emphasised their commitment to cherishing and safeguarding these cultural practices, as highlighted below.

I have happily noticed a new trend in Greenland, more and more families are collecting local food for winter, holidays, and family social events. The local food is not only for the stomach – it is food for the soul, promoting healthier social lives and well-being

(Kim Kielsen, Minister for Fisheries and Hunting, former Premier and Spokesperson for the Greenland Parliament)

Today, increased urbanisation, particularly in the capital areas of Nuuk and Tórshavn, has led to a greater dependency on imported goods. At the same time, new trends have emerged, especially in the Faroe Islands, driven by tourism and the New Nordic Food Movement, which highlight the quality and uniqueness of Faroese food products (interview 3). One notable example is seaweed production, a local commodity that is gaining popularity among both locals and tourists in the Faroe Islands, and increasingly in Greenland as well.

For additional insights from an interview with Høgni Hoydal, please follow this link.

Traditional Faroese foods are now viewed as valuable, contrasting with past perceptions that prioritised imported items like chicken and beef as ‘finer’ options

(Høgni Hoydal, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs, Industry, and Trade)

Dietary Shifts and Health Impacts in Greenland and the Faroe Islands

In Greenland, traditional diets have primarily consisted of seal and whale meat, fjord cod, halibut, caribou, musk oxen, and seabirds, particularly in most parts of West Greenland. In South Greenland, sheep farming and vegetable cultivation, especially potatoes, have played a significant role in local diets (interview 1, interview 5). In the Faroe Islands, households relied on local foods like potatoes, fish, birds, sheep, and occasionally whale. Subsistence activities played a significant role in both societies, emphasising locally caught and traded foods with minimal dependence on purchased goods (interview 2, interview 3).

However, over the past century, there has been a significant shift in diets towards more imported foods. This includes a rise in a Western-style diet characterised by increased consumption of processed foods, refined sugars, and saturated fats (AMAP,2021, interview 5). This shift, along with a decline in the consumption of locally sources country foods, and changing lifestyles (e.g., reduced physical activity), has negatively impacted the health of local populations, contributing to increasing rates of obesity, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer (AHDR, 2014; AMAP, 2021; Jeppesen & Bjerregaard, 2012; Macdonald et al., 2015). Additionally, concerns have arisen over contaminant exposure from traditional diets, particularly marine mammals, questioning the safety of these foods (AMAP, 2021).

Despite the high nutritional benefits of traditional foods, it has been recognised since the 1970s that the marine-based diets of Greenland and the Faroe Islands contain significant levels of organic pollutants and heavy metals. This combination of beneficial and harmful effects, which seem inseparable, has led to the term “The Arctic Dilemma” (AMAP, 2021; Deutch et al., 2007). Therefore, the health implications of the ongoing dietary transition in these Arctic countries are complex, as neither a diet consisting solely of marine mammals and fish nor a Western-style diet appears to be optimal for health. The following section looks more closely at national dietary guidelines and food surveys data for Greenland and Faroe Islands, respectively.

Dietary Guidelines in Greenland and the Faroe Islands

To promote dietary changes and improve public health, authorities have introduced dietary recommendations with an awareness of the Nordic Nutrition Recommendations. In Greenland, the organisation Paarisa plays a key role in promoting national dietary guidelines that encourage a varied diet (Paarisa, n.d). Greenland’s dietary advice includes a wide range of foods, such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, fish, dairy, and meat, with an emphasis on local Greenlandic foods like fish. Recommendations include daily consumption of fruits and vegetables (fresh or frozen), choosing whole grains, and opting for low-fat dairy and meats. The guidelines also advise limiting sugar, sweets, crisps, and cakes, favouring healthier snacks, drinking water instead of sugary drinks, eating three main meals with small snacks in between, and staying active for at least an hour each day. Healthy meals are highlighted as an opportunity for family gatherings.

In the Faroe Islands, the Health Authority recommends a plant-rich, diverse diet, emphasising fruit, vegetables, and fish. It encourages choosing whole grains, plant oils, and low-fat dairy alternatives while reducing meat intake. Staying hydrated with water and limiting foods high in sugar, salt, and fat are also advised (Faroese Health Authority, 2024). Additionally, the Faroese Board of Health advises against consuming contaminated whale meat and blubber, instead recommending low-contaminated fish, such as cod and haddock, and fatty fish, like herring, mackerel, and salmon, without a set limit on weekly servings (interview 2).

We are promoting the traditional Greenlandic diet, emphasising the consumption of local foods, following the seasonal variations, and engaging in the communal harvesting, preparation, and eating of meals with the family

(Gert Mulvad, Chairman of the Nutrition and Exercise Council)