Annex A. Examples and descriptions of language training services

Non-formal language training service providers

Table 16. Examples of private and non-profit providers of non-formal language training services

	Type of provider	Examples of providers
Denmark	Private providers	Københavns Sprogskole, Dansk Bureauet, Studieskolen, Dynamisk Dansk, Sproggruppen
Denmark	Non-profit providers	Red Cross, Danish Refugee Council, Integrationshuset Kringlebakken, CLAVIS Sprog- og kompetencecenter,
Finland	Private providers	Axell, Staffpoint, TRYCamp
Finland	Non-profit providers	Red Cross, Kulttuurikekus Gloria, Careeria, Sateenkaari Koto, Helmet, Integration Centre Monika
Norway	Private providers	Aftenskolen, Alfaskolen, Adoracion, Briga, Hero Kompetanse, InLearn Norway, Language Power International, Kompetansehuset NEO
	Non-profit providers	Red Cross, Norwegian People’s Aid, Caritas, Norwegian Women’s Public Health Association, Christian Intercultural Work, Norwegian Volunteer Services
Sweden	Private providers	GMS International, Upgrades, Acoload, Hermods, Lernia,
Sweden	Non-profit providers	Red Cross, Nya kompisbyrån, Medborgarskolan, ABF, Swedish Church, Folk high schools

Descriptions of studied language training services

Sweden: Vocational training in childcare with language support

Vocational training in childcare with language support was introduced in January 2021 in Härryda Municipality. The initiative was funded by the municipality in response to a demand on the labour market for childcare workers. The VET-related part of the training corresponds to upper secondary level education in childcare.

Härryda kommun (2023)

Participation in the course is free for participants, but the provider estimates that participants have additional pay SEK 1000–1500 per term for literature, photocopying, field trips, and other supplies. The training is 3.5 semesters (approximately two years of full-time studies) and includes a package of courses divided between the two main subjects: the Swedish language and childcare studies. Participants may study Swedish at two different levels, corresponding either to primary school or upper secondary school level. In addition, 1.5 hours a week are allocated to learning professional Swedish, meaning that the participants learn the specific language used in the childcare field. Throughout the duration of the training, participants carry out three internships, each lasting three weeks.

In terms of eligibility to participate, the only formal condition is to have passed the final course in Swedish for Immigrants, SFI D. Participants may not have completed Swedish language courses corresponding to primary school level. The service does not target specific sub-group of immigrants. So however, 100 percent of the participants have been women. The group is, however, diverse in terms of age, time in Sweden, country of origin, and educational background. Most students are from Afghanistan and Syria, but there are also participants from African and South American countries, as well as both Eastern and Western Europe.

The participant’s prerequisites vary greatly. While some have had little or no education, others have completed studies at university level. Some participants have limited language skills due to recently having arrived in Sweden, whereas others have lived in Sweden for several years, but have had limited exposure to the Swedish language. Reasons for this include living in ethnically segregated areas, having been unemployed or on parental leave for long periods of time.

Learning the Swedish language poses many challenges to the participants. Their main challenge is that they find the language is difficult. The grammar in particular poses a challenge to almost anyone who is not a native speaker. Another, more practical challenge, is that the literature in childcare studies is written for upper secondary level education, whereas most participants only have a level of Swedish corresponding to primary level. This means that the course literature is often difficult to understand and use for the participants. The participants also face challenges related to language proficiency in their internships. The challenges both concern the use of professional terminology in appropriate contexts as well as dealing with social situations, such as lunchtime conversations, small talk with parents, or documenting issues related to the children.

The primary goal of the vocational training in childcare with child support is for the participants to learn Swedish and find work, but also to be able to act with confidence in the situations they will face upon entering the workforce. From the participants’ perspective, the programme offers the opportunity to become more attractive on the labour market, increasing their chances of employment. In addition, the social context provided by the training is beneficial in terms of breaking social isolation and allowing the participants to make new friends.

The results of the training are primarily monitored through the grading system that applies to all types of secondary level VET in Sweden, meaning that the students must pass each individual course to complete the training. The school also conducts surveys at enrolment and six months after training has been completed training to determine the extent to which training has facilitated employment. Short term results also include the participants being able to apply their acquired knowledge and skills both generally and specifically through their internships. Long term results refer to participants’ labour market and social integration. The results vary between participants, but one clear trend is that immigrants with previous formal education (especially tertiary education) tend to possess study techniques, which leads to better results. Individual life-circumstances also impact participants’ ability to achieve results. An interviewed representative for the training points out that the closer dialogue between the internship mentors and the school would be beneficial to the development of the participants. The mentors could provide more feedback on development points for the participants, which would also allow teachers to provide more individualised support.

The provider has identified several success factors:

Combining different modes of learning such as lectures, smaller group discussions, writing tasks, and oral presentations offer the participants multiple ways to experience achievement in their learning process.
Close collaboration between childcare teachers, language teachers and internship mentors affect the coherence of the training in a positive way.
Promoting a safe and generous learning environment encourages a supportive culture which facilitates learning.
Close collaboration between the student counsellor and student health to support participants who may be struggling in different ways.
Teachers recognising and validating the participants generates motivation and trust. This is especially important for immigrants who, due to their backgrounds, have little trust in authorities.

In summary, the provider considers the combined training to be an effective way to improve the participants’ employment prospects. The training provides the participants with a social context and several opportunities to apply the skills they acquire. In addition, participants also acquire skills not related to their profession or language proficiency, such increased knowledge of gender equality, human rights, parenting, as well as more administrative life skills such as applying for student loans and computer skills.

Sweden: Lingio

Lingio was established in 2015 in response to the large influx of refugees to Sweden. Its objective is to supplement the regular language training that immigrants receive through Swedish for Immigrants (SFI) courses with specialised language skills related to a particular occupation. The underlying concept is that while immigrants may be interested in obtaining employment in a specific sector, the professional Swedish language required for such employment differs considerably from the Swedish language skills taught in SFI. The tool focuses on profession-specific Swedish and was developed in collaboration with employers from specific sectors as well as teachers of Swedish as a foreign language. It enables immigrants to practice Swedish related to 25 distinct professions. Initially, the initiative had no funding. However, after some years, Lingio secured EU funding through Vinnova and is now self-sufficient.

Lingio can be categorised as a non-formal, traditional language course. Users participate in courses lasting six months, which include assignments they must complete three times a week. The service also provides a designated coach to support language learning. Participants have access to the service while taking part in SFI as an additional tool for learning, with their SFI teacher serving as their designated language coach. If the user is not enrolled in SFI, the service can also be purchased by employers who wish to provide their employees with additional language support. In these situations, the employer serves as the language coach.

In addition to being an app-based tool for learning, Lingio employs artificial intelligence to achieve better outcomes. The digital platform assists users by detecting opportunities for improving pronunciation, encouraging users to practice regularly, and allowing them to scan real-world sentences (such as signs or documents) for use and translation within the app.

The main target audience of Lingio are immigrants who face labour market challenges due to language barriers. Specifically, the sub-groups consist of individuals who match Lingio’s selection of courses and have an interest in working in one of the represented professions. This group is highly diverse in terms of background, education level, professional experience, age, and other factors. Participants are invited to join the courses through Lingio’s clients, who primarily include public or private sector employers. These clients include municipalities, labour market coaches, educational organisations, unions such as the Municipal Workers’ Union (Kommunal) and the Transport Workers’ Union (Transportarbetareförbundet), as well as the private sector.

The participants’ objectives in utilising the service differ, with some motivated by future labour market opportunities, while others consider language proficiency an essential necessity in their lives. From the employer’s perspective, the operational aspect is critical. Miscommunication in certain industries can have disastrous consequences; therefore, it is vital to educate employees or require a minimum level of understanding. For example, knowing the safety rules at a construction site. Moreover, employers seek to retain their employees and provide them with opportunities to grow within their organisations. Many industries struggle to hire staff, making it imperative to provide education to existing or potential employees as a means of meeting staff shortages.

The service adheres to the CEFR, with different professions requiring varying proficiency levels in Lingio’s courses. Participants receive a certificate upon completing a course. One possible improvement for Lingio could be to highlight the CEFR standard more clearly, such as on the certificates. Lingio’s language training is considered to be highly successful among clients and users, with 9.4 out of 10 users recommending the app. The primary lesson learned is the significance of combining technical abilities with pedagogical skills to provide an engaging learning experience. Another lesson is the importance of coaches’ involvement in the individual learning experience.

Denmark: Language training for adult immigrants at Vestegnens Sprog- og Kompetencecenter

Vestegnens Sprog- og Kompetencecenter (VSK) is a municipal language centre that primarily provides language training for adult immigrants. VSK is an inter-municipal collaboration between 11 municipalities located just west of Copenhagen and operates three centres in Ballerup, Glostrup, and Amager. This case study focuses on the language centre in Glostrup.

The service was developed in response to the needs of immigrants who are required to learn Danish to receive Danish residency or citizenship. Upon arrival in Denmark, immigrants are subjected to the Integration Act, which entitles them to free Danish education from the municipality of residence. All immigrants are entitled to free Danish lessons from the day they receive their civil registration number and must complete the lessons within five years. However, immigrants who are classified as self-sufficient (e.g., as labour migrants, foreign students, au pairs, or spouses), must pay a deposit of DKK 2000, which is refunded upon course completion within the set timeframe.

VSK offers three distinct Danish language courses: D1 for immigrants with limited or no prior education, D2 for immigrants with 8–10 years of education in their country of origin, and D3 for immigrants with over 10 years of education and proficiency in a second language. Historically, VSK has had more participants in the so-called integration courses targeted at refugees and their family members. More recently, however, the self-sufficient participants have increased. The self-sufficient participants are mainly composed of EU immigrants from countries such as Germany, Bulgaria, or Italy. Additionally, there is a substantial group of students from Nepal, Pakistan, Korea, and India. Generally, 90 percent of VSK’s students are already employed. VSK’s target group is characterised by low academic levels but sufficient proficiency in English. They often come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds and typically have a limited social network in Denmark.

The language service adopts a “reversed learning” approach, which requires students to conduct independent research and engage in everyday conversations to acquire authentic experiences. In addition to the curriculum, the service also features a “study centre” that provides various services to support the participants’ learning. At the centre, students can receive assistance from teachers in independent study areas or when dealing with specific challenges. The study centre also provides an opportunity for students to converse with volunteers. This initiative is a collaboration between the service and civil society organisations such as the Danish Red Cross, where Danish speakers volunteer to engage in conversations with VSK students. The service is popular among students as it provides a platform for natural conversations that enables them to train their language skills in diverse contexts, including those pertinent to upcoming tests. Broadly speaking, the study centre at VSK is funded through the resources that the school receives from the Danish state, but it relies on volunteers to operate efficiently.

The primary challenge facing participants of the service is the difficult balance between attending classes and working full-time. Many of the participants work low-paying jobs with varying and irregular hours. This challenge is compounded by the fact that employers often do not consider Danish language training to be important. Another obstacle is that Danish is a difficult language to learn, particularly when it comes to pronunciation as the sounds do not always match the written words. Additionally, both participants and teachers at VSK have identified a lack of informal meetings and conversations with fluent Danish speakers as a barrier to language training.

The overarching goal of the service is for participants to be integrated into Danish society, meaning they have a job and the ability to communicate effectively with authorities and health services. The aim of the language training is also to help participants feel confident and at ease when communicating in Danish, allowing them to manage their everyday lives. While there are some variations in the goals of different immigrant sub-groups, it is important for teachers to tailor their teaching to individual needs. Providers and participants alike have found the service to be highly beneficial.

Benchmark research conducted by Danish research company VIVE measures language schools in terms of student performance, absences, and other factors. Here, VSK falls in the middle of the rankings. While it is difficult to determine the long-term effects of the service, most participants achieve their short-term goal of learning Danish. Providers consider the language service to be successful because, upon graduation, participants are equipped to handle general and ordinary everyday life situations in Denmark. However, individual success always depends on the participant’s prerequisites.

VSK representatives have suggested that changing the 5-year rule would benefit the service, as this rule can impede participants’ ability to use the language services effectively. Another external change that could help participants learn would be greater support from employers. Internally, VSK could benefit from a more team-based culture in which teachers can learn from one another’s methods. Participants credit the service’s success to their hardworking teachers, the reversed learning method, and the emphasis on independence.

Denmark: Sprogland

Sprogland (Language land) is a non-formal language training service provided by the Danish Red Cross to assist immigrants Denmark with learning the Danish language. It was initially funded by the National Board of Social Services and was introduced during the Covid-19 pandemic in response to the challenge posed by restrictions leading to the closure of all language training services. The language training service has recently received a new donation from a foundation to develop the platform for the next two years. All initiatives related to immigration in the Danish Red Cross are also funded by the Danish Agency for International Recruitment and Integration.

The concept of Sprogland is rooted in the Danish Red Cross’ online platform, SnakSammen (Speak together), which facilitates non-formal virtual meetings and conversations with volunteers that aim to support and assist individuals who might feel lonely, isolated, or simply wish to engage in conversation. During the pandemic, however, the Red Cross noted that many participants booked online meetings on SnakSammen to acquire language training, which prompted the establishment of the independent online language training service, Sprogland.

Sprogland is run by a team of approximately 70 volunteers who are responsible for providing language training and supervising the platform, which immigrants can use to book time slots. Around two thirds of the volunteers have a background in teaching Danish as a foreign language. Most participants have already completed formal Danish language training and use Sprogland as a means of practicing their language skills in a social and safe learning environment. For many immigrants, finding a Danish social circle is a challenge, and working in jobs such as cleaning or warehousing offers few opportunities to practice language skills. Sprogland provides a valuable opportunity to both practice and connect with new people. The objective of Sprogland is to enhance immigrants’ citizenship and individual prospects for a good life in Denmark. Through language training, the Danish Red Cross aims to give immigrants access to social networks and communities in Denmark, which is critical to their integration process.

Sprogland places emphasis on the development of practical Danish language skills. To achieve this, they strive to create a safe and enjoyable learning environment. However, the courses are conducted online due to the Covid-19 pandemic, presenting a challenge for maintaining an optimal learning environment. Nevertheless, the online format also offers greater flexibility and adaptability, which is beneficial for participants who are unable to attend non-formal language training services in person. Many participants have family and work obligations or already attend formal Danish education. Therefore, Sprogland’s online format allows them to practice their Danish language skills more easily.

In terms of future development, a representative from Sprogland emphasises the value of collaborating with formal language training services and companies that offer language training services. Such collaboration could enable non-formal language training providers, like Sprogland, to understand and meet the needs of participants that are not covered by formal language training services. Therefore, cooperation between language training services could enhance the overall initiative and programme. The Danish Red Cross also intends to target Sprogland towards specific professions, such as the hotel and restaurant industry, given that many of the participants work in these fields.

Norway: Folkeuniversitetet

Folkeuniversitetet (The People’s University) in Norway is a non-profit association that provides vocational, linguistic, cultural, and leisure courses and studies for adults at various education levels. The primary target audience for their language training services are immigrants seeking to learn Norwegian who are ineligible for formal language training. As such, the majority of participants are labour migrants, whose courses are often purchased by employers to improve profession-specific Norwegian skills. Folkeuniversitetet collaborates with clients to structure courses that fit their time and resource constraints, including specific professional language training for various work fields. The standard 48-hour course costs around NOK 6200 per participant, with the Norwegian state paying 75 percent of the cost upon completion.

The course is available to all individuals regardless of their level of previous education, ranging from illiteracy to tertiary education. However, a participant’s level of education can impact their learning outcomes. It requires a significant amount of effort and time for participants to process and practice what they have learned. This is a challenge for almost everyone, but those with higher education may have better prerequisites to comprehend the process of learning a language. Individuals with little or no education often struggle to learn a language through formal schooling and instead benefit from more practical learning methods.

Folkeuniversitetet has developed a test to evaluate the proficiency of its participants, which is often requested by employers. This test serves as a means for participants to assess their readiness to progress to the next level. Nonetheless, the organisation lacks a comprehensive overview of the success rate of its participants. While it can be observed that participants make significant improvements in their Norwegian language skills, Folkeuniversitetet deems the high return rate of participants for further courses as the best indicator of the service’s success.

While employers view this service as a valuable resource, Folkeuniversitetet prefers longer courses to increase the usefulness of the education. However, longer courses may be cost-prohibitive for many participants. Meeting the needs of clients and participants poses the primary challenge for Folkeuniversitetet’s language training service.

Overall, Folkeuniversitetet has an efficient and high-quality system in place to provide courses. Their language services targeted at businesses balance the demand for quick solutions to production or safety issues with the goal of providing immigrants with better employment prospects.

Norway: MiR – Mangfold, Inkludering, Respekt

MiR – Mangfold, Inkludering, Respekt (Diversity, Inclusion, Respect) was established in 2006. It is a non-profit organisation that aims to facilitate communication between parents and various national authorities, including the Norwegian school system and the Labour and Welfare Administration (NAV). MiR operates in three key areas: education, healthcare, and family life. The organisation is active at the local, national, and international levels and has an office in Oslo, where it undertakes several projects that focus on improving the lives of parents and children. One of MiR’s main priorities is to enhance inclusivity by providing language training. The organisation offers free language training to its participants, which is particularly beneficial for labour migrants who are ineligible for free language courses in the Norwegian migration system.

MiR is a quintessential example of how non-formal language training is typically organised in Norway. Through a free open-access learning community, the organisation emphasises the practice of everyday language. Its approach is to empower people by fostering community-building and improving language skills. In this manner, language courses serve several purposes, including community building and combating loneliness, empowering individuals, instilling confidence and self-sufficiency, preparing participants to navigate meetings with the school system, healthcare providers, and authorities, and enhancing employment prospects.

MiR also targets vulnerable immigrant groups, with specific courses for women and mothers who have primarily worked in the home. Mental health is also a focus of these courses, as women are more likely to be socially excluded compared to their male counterparts who often have more work-related social interactions. MiR also provides services for young people, including homework assistance in Norwegian and maths. The youth organisation, MiR Ung (MiR Youth), targets individuals aged 13–25. MiR’s “Community and Mastering” project helps immigrants to form social networks and counteract loneliness. In the organisation’s Norwegian courses, many participants are women, who discuss specific topics (e.g., the labour market) to improve their language skills while simultaneously learning about the topic. MiR also offers specific courses to learn professional Norwegian used in different fields of work.

Although many participants attend municipal courses and use MiR’s language training services as a supplement to their formal language training, some do not have the right to free language training and use the courses for free practice. MiR offers two different skill levels, one for those with no prior training and another for those who have already practiced some Norwegian.

A challenge for MiR is that some participants stop attending courses and activities due to violence at home, financial difficulties, or problems in their country of origin. The main obstacle for the service is its dependence on external funding. However, the organisation representative considers the service successful, as participants find the service and courses highly useful. An essential aspect of this is that the service is open to everyone, regardless of immigration status, prerequisites, and nationality. MiR’s success is also evident from its growth and increased number of collaborators. The organisation has also received positive feedback from schools and regarding the way they work with health and mental health issues. One area of improvement that the organisation aims to pursue is developing a diploma for their courses, which participants can use as a reference.

Finland: Gimara – Brighter Future

Gimara is an initiative designed to teach the Finnish language to a very specific target group, namely healthcare professionals in Myanmar. The background for this initiative is a severe shortage of labour in Finland’s healthcare and social services sector, which has led to a strategy of exploring international recruitment opportunities. Gimara provides language training to individuals who are willing to work in Finland. The service was developed in response to the perception that traditional language training is often ineffective because it takes too long for participants to start using the language. Therefore, Gimara has developed learning models and teaching materials that aim to encourage learners to use the language at an early stage, with less emphasis on grammar and more on authentic learning.

This project is conducted by two organisations. Gimara, a Finnish organisation that specialises in online language learning, provides the pedagogical material for language training, carries out language tests for participants, and supports language trainers. Brighter Future, one of the organisations that Gimara collaborates with, specialises in international recruitment. Since 2020, they have been recruiting and providing Finnish training to nurses in Myanmar with the goal of bringing them to work and live in Finland. They are responsible for both the recruitment and provision of language training. The employer requesting additional personnel is responsible for all the costs associated with the training of the nurses. The service’s specific target group is potential labour migrants. To be eligible for this language service, participants must have a university degree in the field of healthcare meaning that higher education is a prerequisite for participation.

One significant contrast between Gimara/Brighter Future and other language training services is that it operates outside of the target country, Finland, instead being based in the home country of the potential labour migrants. The programme aims to bring participants up to the CEFR level of A2.1 by the end of their training. The course entails approximately 20 hours of training per week, conducted by a teacher who is fluent in both Finnish and Burmese, and who has experience working in Finland’s healthcare sector. The language training is designed to include a lot of vital medical vocabulary.

In the short term, participants are expected to be able to speak and write Finnish at A2.1 level after six months of training. This level of proficiency allows them to move to Finland and work as assistants while undertaking an apprenticeship to become practical nurses. Over the long term, participants become registered practical nurses in Finland, thereby reducing labour shortages within the sector. One of the primary challenges facing this language service is finding companies willing to recruit personnel from abroad and commit to the process. The success of the programme is due in part to Burmese nurses teaching other Burmese nurses. They offer insights into the experience of moving from Myanmar to Finland. The pedagogical material provided by Gimara is also important in ensuring that the programme includes essential pedagogical components.

Finland: Yle Kielikoulu/Språkskolan

Yle Kielikoulu/Språkskolan (The Language School) is a language technology tool introduced by the Finnish public broadcasting channel Yle in 2020. The service was developed to cater to the increasing immigrant population in Finland, with the belief that media plays an essential role in introducing immigrants to their new home country, thereby promoting integration and language learning. The service mirrors Yle’s “play” service, providing users with access to most public programming, including news, TV shows, and movies. However, it also offers an additional functionality of adding subtitles to regular programming, which users can interact with. For instance, users can choose to watch the Finnish news with Finnish subtitles and select individual words to have them translated into another language. At present, there are 14 available languages for Finnish programming and 26 for Swedish programming.

The non-profit organisation Språkkraft, which develops digital tools for language learning, created the tool and provides its services to both Yle and the Swedish public television SVT. The organisation is responsible for providing translations for the programmes and spreading awareness of the service to the target audience in collaboration with Yle. The primary target group for the service is immigrants. However, the service is also used as a supporting tool by teachers and native Finnish and Swedish speakers who wish to learn Finland’s other official language. Therefore, the service is open to anyone. However, it is best suited for language learners who already have some knowledge of Finnish or Swedish. By using the service, users can click on unknown words and add them to their vocabulary. However, without any knowledge of the language, the service may prove overwhelming as all the words are new.

The aim of Kielikoulu/Språkskolan is to support language learning and reduce the barriers to accessing Finnish news, encouraging immigrants to learn more about the society, and participate in public debate. A significant challenge for the service is that participants tend to consume news and other media in their native language, which may impede their development of Finnish or Swedish language skills. This, in turn, may limit their knowledge of subjects in the public debate, affecting their integration into the society.

As the service is remote and available to anyone, measuring participants’ language skills’ improvement is challenging. However, Språkkraft measures the number of users, which indicates the service’s usefulness. The fact that people continue to use the service suggests its success as a language learning tool. Anecdotal evidence from users also suggests that the service is greatly appreciated due to its accessibility. The most popular programming among users is the local news, which also keeps them updated on current affairs in the country they have moved to, another vital aspect of integration. Additionally, the project’s costs are relatively low since Yle (and SVT) already provide subtitles for viewers with hearing loss or difficulties. The tool itself only provides an interface for clicking on words and providing translations in a given language. Therefore, it is easy to adapt the service to include new languages as necessary. For instance, Ukrainian was added to the service due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine and increased influx of Ukrainian refugees.