International institutions
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
As stated earlier in this report, a key contribution is the 2023 report by the OECD and the European Commission on indicators of immigrant integration, the latest in a series following editions in 2015 and 2018 (OECD & European Union, 2015, 2018). It advances prior work by defining integration as ‘the ability of immigrants to achieve the same social and economic outcomes as natives, taking into account their characteristics’ (OECD/European Commission, 2023, p. 18). Providing a harmonised and comprehensive set of indicators, the OECD framework serves as a valuable tool for scholars and policymakers aiming to monitor, analyse, and improve immigrant integration. The report draws on data from sources such as the European Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS), EU Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC), the European Social Survey (ESS), and other international surveys. A core strength of this framework is its capacity to facilitate cross-national comparisons of migrants’ integration outcomes. However, a notable limitation in this context is the aggregation of migrants into (mostly) a single broad category, either due to small sample sizes in many countries or the general scope of the report.
Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC)
PIAAC is an international survey led by the OECD, and is the most comprehensive international survey of adult skills. It evaluates literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving skills in technology-rich environments among adults aged 16 to 65 (OECD, 2013). Four Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden) participate in cycles 1 and 2 of the survey.
The first cycle of PIAAC was implemented between 2011 and 2018 in over 30 countries, including all five Nordic countries. Literacy, in the PIAAC context, refers to the ability to understand, evaluate, and engage with written texts to function effectively in society and pursue personal goals (OECD, 2013). Nationally representative samples were drawn to reflect each country’s adult population: Sweden included approximately 5,400 participants, while Norway, Finland, and Denmark each had about 5,000 participants. Iceland had a smaller sample of roughly 1,300 individuals (OECD, n.d.).
Though the survey included foreign-born individuals, precise figures for migrant participation within each national sample differ across countries (OECD, 2013). For example, in Norway, the most recent available results are from the 2011–2012 survey, which involved approximately 5,000 participants with a 62% response rate and was conducted through face-to-face interviews in which immigrants constituted 13% of the sample (Strøm et al., 2024).
The second cycle of PIAAC commenced in 2022, with the data collection timeline varying across countries (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), n.d.). This cycle features an expanded background questionnaire, incorporating more granular data on migration histories, education pathways, and labour market participation. In the Nordic countries, the sample sizes were as follows: 17,700 in Denmark, 10,953 in Finland, 11,700 in Norway, and 12,000 in Sweden. The numbers of individuals with cognitive assessment data were 4,180 in Denmark, 3,787 in Finland, 3,789 in Norway, and 3,604 in Sweden (Nordic Network for Adult Learning (NLL), 2024).
Overall, PIAAC provides internationally comparable data on adult skills, including those for the Nordic countries. Migrants were included in both cycles, but detailed breakdowns by different migrant groups may be limited. In addition, issues related to the language in which the survey is conducted can affect the representativeness of the sample. Nonetheless, PIAAC data is widely used in academic literature to assess aspects of migrants’ linguistic integration (see, for example, Bar-Haim & Birgier, 2024; Bussi & Pareliussen, 2017; Lind & Mellander, 2020). Once data from the second cycle become available, analyses of literacy skills among migrant populations can be updated.
Gallup data
Gallup constitutes a major global analytics company conducting extensive public opinion polling and social research across more than 100 countries, including Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. While Gallup datasets contain variables relevant to migrants’ integration, the publicly available indicators are aggregated at national levels without disaggregation by demographic characteristics, limiting their utility for migrant-specific analysis (Gallup, 2020).
The dataset contains annual measures of emotional well-being, featuring a series of questions related to individuals’ emotional states. These responses are combined into a Positive Experience Index, calculated as the average percentage of affirmative answers to selected items, multiplied by 100. Higher scores reflect a greater prevalence of positive emotions within a country and are closely associated with perceptions of living standards, personal freedoms, and social networks (Gallup, 2020).
Gallup has also developed a Migrant Acceptance Index based on survey questions assessing attitudes toward immigrants living in one’s country, becoming neighbours, or marrying into families. This index highlights varying levels of acceptance across countries and relates migrant acceptance to emotional health and well-being (Esipova et al., 2021).
Additionally, Gallup provides data on trust, including Leadership Approval and Trust in Institutions, reported at the national level. Given the relatively small sample size of approximately 1,000 respondents per country, it is understandable that the indicators are not presented by demographic subgroups. However, individual-level data can be made available to researchers and institutions – albeit at a cost – enabling the calculation of indicators by migration status and other relevant demographic variables.
World Values Survey (WVS)
The World Values Survey (WVS) is a comprehensive international research initiative that examines the values and beliefs of individuals across diverse societies, aiming to understand how these cultural factors influence social and political life. Since its inception in 1981, the WVS has conducted nationally representative surveys in nearly 100 countries, encompassing over 90% of the global population. Each participating country employs a standardised questionnaire, allowing for comparative analysis across nations and overtime. The surveys typically include a minimum sample size of 1,200 respondents, with larger samples in more populous or diverse countries to ensure representativeness. The WVS assesses a wide array of dimensions, including attitudes toward democracy, governance, religion, gender roles, family, and economic life. Notably, it identifies two major dimensions of cultural variation: traditional versus secular-rational values, and survival versus self-expression values. These insights have been instrumental in understanding cultural shifts and their implications for societal development (Haerpfer et al., 2020).
Although the World Values Survey (WVS) provides insights into aspects relevant to the social and civic integration of migrants, its limited sample size in each country restricts focused analysis on migrant populations. To address this in Sweden, the Survey of Swedish Migrants study (2018) – conducted as part of the WVS’s 7th wave by the Institute for Futures Studies – oversampled migrants who had arrived between 2007 and 2018. The target group included non-European migrants registered in Sweden and residing in one of 54 strategically selected municipalities. Participants were recruited through written invitations, language courses for immigrants, and upper secondary school classes. A total of 7,161 individuals were invited, with a final sample of 6,516 respondents. Surveys were conducted in seven languages, with support for illiterate participants provided by translation assistants (Institute for Futures Studies, 2019; Norris & Puranen, 2019).
Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX)
The Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX) serves as a tool for evaluating integration policies across nations, covering 56 countries, including EU and OECD member states (Solano & Huddleston, 2020). The index analyses eight policy domains and has evolved since its pilot phase in 2004 and official launch in 2007, with 2019 representing the most current data available. Research by the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre characterises MIPEX as the most extensive migration policy dataset currently available, noting its unique coverage of all 28 EU member states (Scipioni & Urso, 2018). Periodic updates of the index enable researchers to conduct both comparative and temporal analyses of policy developments.
While MIPEX offers comprehensive policy analysis, it has limited applicability for measuring actual integration outcomes, focusing on institutional frameworks rather than migrants’ lived experiences. Nevertheless, the index remains useful for contextualising the policy landscape within which integration processes occur, and has been employed to examine policy differences among Nordic countries (Alaimo et al., 2023).
European institutions
At the European level, the European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) survey, the European Social Survey (ESS), and the European Value Survey (EVS) provide indicators relevant to the social and civic integration of migrants.
European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC)
The EU-SILC survey collects harmonised annual data across the EU, EEA, and selected neighbouring countries. The sample unit in most countries is the household, and in many countries the sampling design is based on the stratified two-stage sampling process (Wirth & Pforr, 2022). Following a 2021 revision, the survey structure includes fixed annual themes – such as income, poverty, housing, health, labour market participation, and childcare – alongside rotating modules on such topics as quality of life, social mobility, debt, and access to services (Eurostat, 2025; Wirth & Pforr, 2022).
The EU-SILC sample is representative of the population aged 16 and older, including individuals with immigrant backgrounds (Eurostat, 2025; Wirth & Pforr, 2022). Within the Nordics, the 2018 sample size ranged from nearly 3,000 households and over 8,600 individuals in Iceland to around 5,800 households and over 14,400 individuals in Sweden (Wirth & Pforr, 2022). In most Nordic countries, however, immigrants form a relatively small but growing subgroup in the survey samples, limiting the ability to conduct detailed analyses. Public use data are typically grouped into two broad regional categories (e.g., immigrants from EU/EFTA vs. Africa/Asia), and selective non-response – often linked to language barriers – may further bias results (Strøm et al., 2024).
While the survey provides a basis for general comparisons of living conditions between immigrants and the general population, it has a limited capacity for more detailed analysis of immigration-specific factors such as social and civic integration as defined by Fajth & Lessard-Phillips (2023) and used in this report, or country-of-origin effects. As such, EU-SILC is more appropriate for broad, population-level monitoring of income levels and living conditions than for detailed exploration of immigrants’ lived experiences and integration outcomes – particularly when examining indicators of social and civic integration as conceptualised in this report.
European Social Survey (ESS)
Launched in 2002 and based on face-to-face interviews, the European Social Survey (ESS) is conducted every two years. It provides cross-national data on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours, which can support comparative studies across more than 30 countries (European Social Survey, 2025a). In each participating country, the sample represents all individuals aged 15 and above residing in private households, irrespective of nationality, citizenship, or language. Participants are selected using rigorous random probability techniques at all stages. Sampling frames may consist of individuals, households, or addresses. Each country is required to achieve a minimum effective sample size of 1,500 respondents, or 800 for countries with populations under two million (European Social Survey, 2025b). The survey follows consistent methodological practices and covers a range of topics, but its usefulness for understanding aspects of migrant integration varies depending on sample size.
Each round of the ESS includes a core module repeated consistently, along with rotating modules that explore different themes. Modules addressing immigration and integration were included in Rounds 1 (2002/2003) and 7 (2014/15), and are planned for Round 12 (2025). These modules touch on public perceptions of immigration, perceived societal impacts, and some aspects of migrants’ experiences (European Social Survey, 2025a).
Several indicators in the ESS may be relevant for exploring social and civic integration:
Subjective well-being: Self-reported life satisfaction and happiness.
Social trust: General trust in people and institutions.
Political participation: Involvement in civic activities such as voting or protests.
Perceived discrimination: Reports of unfair treatment.
Social networks: Contact with friends, family, and others.
Language proficiency: Self-rated ability to use the local language.
Sense of belonging: Feelings of connection to the host country or community.