Market-based instruments Medium to high | Taxes: Consumer price increases Subsidies: Consumer price reductions. | Taxes and subsidies can indirectly influence taste preferences, e.g. if healthier options are made cheaper. | Age, gender, education level and previous eating habits influence the acceptance of food taxes. More educated individuals might be more responsive to the rationale behind taxes and subsidies. | Generally higher financial impact but also health benefits of food taxes on lower income individuals. Political ideology, personal values influence the level of acceptance of food taxes. | Opportunity (impacting affordability). |
Regulatory instruments High | Regulation of marketing and labelling. Regulating public procurement. Regulation of choice of e.g., school meals (including vending-machine bans and provision of free fruit and vegetables). | Over time, can have a significant influence on shaping consumer taste preferences and choices. | A significant impact on shaping beliefs and attitudes. Understanding the reasons behind regulatory measures (e.g., the health benefits of certain foods) can influence their effectiveness. This understanding can be influenced by the level of education and knowledge. | Regulating the accessibility of certain foods may be particularly beneficial for lower-income groups and children. | Opportunity (impacting availability). |
Nudging Low to medium | Portion sizes/placement in restaurants and shops. Interventions. Primes carefully designed to activate specific thoughts, emotions, or associations. | May encourage individuals to taste new and different food products, altering taste and preferences. | Over time, nudging can subtly influence individual beliefs and attitudes towards certain foods and contribute to changing cultural norms. The success of nudges often depends on their alignment with existing beliefs, attitudes and social norms. | Cultural norms and values, as well as income level may influence access to food choices and receptivity to nudges. | Capability, motivation and opportunity (impacting accessibility, appeal, availability). |
Information-based instruments Low | Labelling, Knowledge and support based information, campaigns/menus/dietary advice. | Labelling can alter the perceived appeal of food products. People’s unique dietary needs and experiences can affect how they respond to information. | Diverse impact of age, gender, knowledge and education level on the way information is perceived and comprehended. | Place of residence and socio-cultural environment may impact on the way nutritional and health-related information is perceived, sought and comprehended. | Capability and motivation (changing beliefs, attitudes, norms, knowledge and skills). |