Sweden

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A. Specific reference: (author(s), year, title, source, pages)
Engdahl, M., & Forslund, A. (2015). En förlorad generation? En ESO-rapport om ungas etablering på arbetsmarknaden. Rapport till Expertgruppen för studier i offentlig ekonomi 2015:3, Finansdepartementet, Stockholm.

B. Main topic covered by this specific study and how it relates to the barriers identified
The school-to-work transition.

C. Target group(s), information on how the target group is identified
Youth, ages 16 to 30.

D. Location of the study: Country, region, city 
Sweden, 1990-2010.

E. Data (a.), specific measures (b.), and methods (c.), please also specify whether the study deploys cross-country data (d.)
a. Register data.

b. Employment rates.

c. Regression analysis.

d. No cross-country data was used.

F. Overall characteristic of the barriers identified by this study
Factors affecting the youth employment rate. 

G. Brief description of the specific barrier(s) the target group faces as identified in this study
Barrier 1 School drop-out. Youth with incomplete compulsory or upper-secondary education have lower employment rates .

Barrier 2 Ill-health, disability. Youth with health problems or some type of disability have lower employment rates.

H. Quality of the study: High, medium, low + comments
Medium (register data, long time series, standard regression analysis).

A. Specific reference: (author(s), year, title, source, pages)
Saez, E., Schoefer, B., & Seim, D. (2019). Payroll taxes, firm behavior, and rent sharing: Evidence from a young workers' tax cut in Sweden. American Economic Review, 109(5), 1717-63.

B. Main topic covered by this specific study and how it relates to the barriers identified
The importance of labor costs for youth employment.

C. Target group(s), information on how the target group is identified
Young workers, ages 20 to 32.

D. Location of the study: Country, region, city 
Sweden, 2002-2013.

a. Register and survey data (the Integrated Database for Labour Market Research, the Structure of Earnings Survey)

b. Wages and employment.

c. Regression analysis.

d. No cross-country data was used.

F. Overall characteristic of the barriers identified by this study
High labor costs.

G. Brief description of the specific barrier(s) the target group faces as identified in this study
Barrier 1 High labor costs. The high cost of employing young workers in relation to their production.

H. Quality of the study: High, medium, low + comments
High (register data, large set of survey data, well identified wage effect).

A. Specific reference: (author(s), year, title, source, pages)
Engdahl, M., & Forslund, A. (2015). En förlorad generation? En ESO-rapport om ungas etablering på arbetsmarknaden. Rapport till Expertgruppen för studier i offentlig ekonomi 2015:3, Finansdepartementet, Stockholm.

B. Main topic covered by this specific study and how it relates to the barriers identified
The school-to-work transition.

C. Target group(s), information on how the target group is identified
Youth, ages 16 to 30.

D. Location of the study: Country, region, city 
Sweden, 1990-2010.

E. Data (a.), specific measures (b.), and methods (c.), please also specify whether the study deploys cross-country data (d.)
a. Register data.
b. Employment rates.
c. Regression analysis.
d. No cross-country data was used.

F. Overall characteristic of the barriers identified by this study
Public policies need to be explicitly directed at those youth having difficulty finding employment.

G. Brief description of the specific barrier(s) the target group faces as identified in this study
Barrier 1 School drop-out. An early identification of youth at risk of dropping out is needed as well as programs to support them in school.

Barrier 2 School drop-out
The structure of education, in particular vocational education, is important as youth at risk of dropping out could be expected to benefit from a greater share of employer based, on-site training.

H. Quality of the study: High, medium, low + comments
Medium (register data, long time series, standard regression analysis).

A. Specific reference: (author(s), year, title, source, pages)
Jonsson, R. (2021). Retaining the Aging Workforce: Studies of the interplay between individual and organizational capability in the context of prolonged working lives. Ph.D thesis. University of Gothenburg, Sweden.

B. Main topic covered by this specific study and how it relates to the barriers identified
The objective was to examine the association between personal factors and actual retirement defined by a drop in work-related income to identify factors that hinder older workers from continuing to work or enable them to do so.

C. Target group(s), information on how the target group is identified
Nationally representative sample born 1938–1943.

D. Location of the study: Country, region, city 
Sweden, 2002-2015.

E. Data (a.), specific measures (b.), and methods (c.), please also specify whether the study deploys cross-country data (d.)
a. Survey & register data: (the Panel Survey of Aging and the Elderly, the Longitudinal Integration Database for Health Insurance and Labour Market Studies).
b.  Dependent variable: Actual retirement indicated by drop in earned income. Independent variables:
self-rated health, disease, sickness, pain in the neck or shoulders, physical work ability, psychological work ability, caring responsibility, no cash reserve.
c. Cox proportional hazard and linear regression.
d. No cross-country data used.

F. Overall characteristic of the barriers identified by this study
Many personal factors related to health and work ability were clearly associated with shorter working lives.

G. Brief description of the specific barrier(s) the target group faces as identified in this study
Barrier 1 Physical health limitations: Poor self-rated health, disease, and pain increased the likelihood of retirement, while physical work ability decreased it.

H. Quality of the study: High, medium, low + comments
High (Longitudinal data linking previous health with subsequent labor market exit).

A. Specific reference: (author(s), year, title, source, pages)
Nilsson, K., Östergren, P. O., Kadefors, R., & Albin, M. (2016). Has the participation of older employees in the workforce increased? Study of the total Swedish population regarding exit from working life. Scandinavian journal of public health, 44(5), 506-516.

B. Main topic covered by this specific study and how it relates to the barriers identified
This study investigated: (i) the workforce participation in Sweden among older employees before and after changes in eligibility for sickness absence and unemployment compensation by a social insurance reform; and (ii) absence and early exit mechanisms from the workforce for different professions by looking at sickness benefits, disability pension and unemployment, early statutory pension, employment pension and unregistered economic supply.

C. Target group(s), information on how the target group is identified
Total Swedish workforce population of 55–64-year-olds.

Sweden, in 2004 and 2011.

E. Data (a.), specific measures (b.), and methods (c.), please also specify whether the study deploys cross-country data (d.)
a. Swedish register data (the Swedish population register, data from Statistics Sweden (SCB) and the Swedish national labor statistics).
b. Days with sickness benefit, disability pension, or unemployment.
c. Gender and occupational comparisons before and after reforms to sick pay and unemployment compensation schemes.
d. No cross-country data was used.

F. Overall characteristic of the barriers identified by this study
Eligibility criteria in social insurance schemes are an important factor behind exits from the labor market. However, although tightening eligibility likely leads to lower take-up in the affected scheme, it need not lead to an overall reduction in exits as workers instead may increase take-up of some other program or exit using some other source of funding (e.g. savings).

G. Brief description of the specific barrier(s) the target group faces as identified in this study
Barrier 1 Eligibility for sick pay, unemployment compensation, disability pension and other social insurance benefits: The compensation levels within these schemes granted workers a sufficient standard of living, making labor force exit a more attractive option.

H. Quality of the study: High, medium, low + comments
Medium (Nationally representative population and natural experiment design, but no controls).

Nilsson, K. (2020). When is work a cause of early retirement and are there any effective organizational measures to combat this? A population-based study of perceived work environment and work-related disorders among employees in Sweden. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 1-15.

B. Main topic covered by this specific study and how it relates to the barriers identified
The aim was to investigate the possibility to work beyond 65 years of age among men and women associated to their work environments, their work tasks, work-related disorders. The aim was also to investigate whether systematic work environmental management in the workplace as well as access to occupational health care services increase the possibility of working beyond 65 years of age.

C. Target group(s), information on how the target group is identified
Employees aged 31–64 years and 50–64 years, respectively.

D. Location of the study: Country, region, city 
Sweden, 2011–2012.

E. Data (a.), specific measures (b.), and methods (c.), please also specify whether the study deploys cross-country data (d.)
a. Surveys among all Swedish employees (the Survey of National Work-Related Health Disorders and the National Work Environmental Survey).

b.  Dependent variable: Belief in the possibility of working until age 65. Independent variables:
i. Physical work environment (“bodily exhaustion after work”, “strenuous working poses”),
ii. mental work environment (“frequent feeling of own work effort being insufficient at the end of the day”, “experience of the work as restricted and with lack of freedom,” “working alone and at risk of unsafe or threatening situations”),
iii. work pace and working time (“dissatisfied with working hours”, “not enough rest and relaxation between working days (apart from sleeping time)”),
iv. management and social support in work (“lack of opportunity to partly decide the times at which different tasks are to be done”, “lack of enough support and help from superiors and colleagues at work”),
v. motivation and work satisfaction (“I am generally dissatisfied with the work tasks”, “the work tasks are monotonous”),
vi. competence and possibility for skills development (“the work tasks are too simple for my competence”)

c. Logistic regression analysis.

d. No cross-country data is used.

F. Overall characteristic of the barriers identified by this study
Deficiencies in the working environment decreases the likelihood of working until statutory retirement.

G. Brief description of the specific barrier(s) the target group faces as identified in this study
Barrier 1 Physical work environment: Physically demanding working conditions lowered the likelihood of working to 65.

Barrier 2 Mental work environment: Mentally demanding working conditions lowered the likelihood of working to 65.

Barrier 3 Motivation and work satisfaction: Lack of motivation and work satisfaction lowered the likelihood of working to 65.

H. Quality of the study: High, medium, low + comments: Medium (Nationally representative sample, yet no attempt to control for selection).

A. Specific reference: (author(s), year, title, source, pages)
Eriksson, S., and Rooth, D.-O. (2022). God svenska – vägen till arbete för utrikes födda? Stockholm: SNS Förlag.

B. Main topic covered by this specific study and how it relates to the barriers identified
Immigrant language skills.

C. Target group(s), information on how the target group is identified
Recruiters working at public and private sector employers of different sizes.

D. Location of the study: Country, region, city 
Sweden, 2021.

E. Data (a.), specific measures (b.), and methods (c.), please also specify whether the study deploys cross-country data (d.)
a. Survey & register data.
b. Recruiter assessments of the written and spoken language skills of fictive job applicants. Participation in Swedish-as-Second-Language courses. Language skills according to PIAAC.
c. Comparisons of assessments and subsequent likelihood of job interview. Completion of different levels of Swedish-as-Second-Language courses.
d. No cross-country data was used.

F. Overall characteristic of the barriers identified by this study
Language skills important for employment prospects.

G. Brief description of the specific barrier(s) the target group faces as identified in this study
Barrier 1 Language skills rated highly by employers. Poor language skills limit the likelihood of being invited to a job interview.

Barrier 2 Lack of language skills. Many immigrants lack language skills.

Medium (combination of survey and register data, standardized skill samples, vignette study).

A. Specific reference: (author(s), year, title, source, pages)
Friedrich, B., Laun, L., Meghir, C. (2021). Earnings dynamics of immigrants and natives in Sweden 1985–2016. Institutet för arbetsmarknads- och utbildningspolitisk utvärdering (IFAU), Rapport 2021:15.

B. Main topic covered by this specific study and how it relates to the barriers identified
Earnings among immigrants and natives.

C. Target group(s), information on how the target group is identified
Population, age 25 to 55, 1985 to 2016.

D. Location of the study: Country, region, city 
Sweden, 1985 to 2016.

E. Data (a.), specific measures (b.), and methods (c.), please also specify whether the study deploys cross-country data (d.)
a. Register data (the Longitudinal Integration Database for Health Insurance and Labour Market Studies)
b. Earnings, work-related benefits, disposable income.
c. Changes in earnings inequality and volatility.
d. No cross-country data was used.

F. Overall characteristic of the barriers identified by this study
Alternative income sources decrease the likelihood of employment.

G. Brief description of the specific barrier(s) the target group faces as identified in this study
Barrier 1 Alternative sources of income. As alternative sources of income (benefits) decrease earnings rise.

H. Quality of the study: High, medium, low + comments
Medium (register data, no controls).

A. Specific reference: (author(s), year, title, source, pages)
Engdahl, M., and Liljeberg, L. (2022). Flyktingar och flyktinganhörigas etablering på arbetsmarknaden i Stockholm, Göteborg och Malmö. Institutet för arbetsmarknads- och utbildningspolitisk utvärdering (IFAU), Rapport 2022:15.

B. Main topic covered by this specific study and how it relates to the barriers identified
Native-refugee employment gaps in Sweden’s three largest metropolitan areas.

C. Target group(s), information on how the target group is identified
Population aged 24 to 54.

D. Location of the study: Country, region, city 
Sweden, 2000-2019.

E. Data (a.), specific measures (b.), and methods (c.), please also specify whether the study deploys cross-country data (d.)
a. Register data (the Longitudinal Integration Database for Health Insurance and Labour Market Studies, the Register for migration and asylum statistics).
b. Dependent variables: Employment (as indicated by different types and levels of income from work). Independent variables: unemployment, share small employers, share large employers, employment composition (industry), income level.
c. Regression analyses.
d. No cross-country data was used.

F. Overall characteristic of the barriers identified by this study
Lack of employment opportunities.

G. Brief description of the specific barrier(s) the target group faces as identified in this study
Barrier 1 Lack of employment opportunities
Differences in the employment structure of the local labor market contributes to the differences in the native-refugee employment gap.

H. Quality of the study: High, medium, low + comments
Medium (register data, many control variables).

A. Specific reference: (author(s), year, title, source, pages)
Andersson Joona P., A. Lanninger and M. Sundström (2016), Reforming the Integration of Refugees: The Swedish Experience. IZA discussion paper 10307.

B. Main topic covered by this specific study and how it relates to the barriers identified
Design of labor market programs targeted at immigrants.

C. Target group(s), information on how the target group is identified
Immigrants arriving immediately before and after the reform of the Swedish integration program.

D. Location of the study: Country, region, city 
Sweden, 2009-2014.

E. Data (a.), specific measures (b.), and methods (c.), please also specify whether the study deploys cross-country data (d.)
a. Register data
b. Dependent variables: employment and earnings. Independent variables: gender, age, country of birth, educational attainment, refugee category, month of residence permit, days of national registration, married, children 0 ‐ 6 years, county of residence and local unemployment rate.
c. Regression analysis.
d. No cross-country data was used.

F. Overall characteristic of the barriers identified by this study
Lack of work preparation.

G. Brief description of the specific barrier(s) the target group faces as identified in this study
Barrier 1 Lack of work preparation. The reform involved coaching providing immigrants with advice and contacts.

H. Quality of the study: High, medium, low + comments
High (FD identification, large number of controls).

A. Specific reference: (author(s), year, title, source, pages)
Arvidsson, J. (2016). Sysselsättning och social rättvisa. En nationell registerstudie om 12 269 unga vuxna med intellektuell funktionsnedsättning. Halmstad University Dissertations no 19. Halmstad: Halmstad UP.

B. Main topic covered by this specific study and how it relates to the barriers identified
Activity status of young people who have graduated from an upper-secondary school for students with intellectual disabilities.

C. Target group(s), information on how the target group is identified
Youth with an intellectual disability.

D. Location of the study: Country, region, city 
Sweden, 2012.

E. Data (a.), specific measures (b.), and methods (c.), please also specify whether the study deploys cross-country data (d.)
a. Register data (Halmstad University Register on Pupils with Intellectual Disability).
b. Dependent variables: Employment and activity status. Independent variables: gender, parental education, parental country of birth, place of residence, type of educational program, date of graduation.
c. Logistic regression.
d. No cross-country data was used.

F. Overall characteristic of the barriers identified by this study
Various deficiencies in the context in which the youth is placed.

G. Brief description of the specific barrier(s) the target group faces as identified in this study
Barrier 1 Family of origin. Family background (parental education) affected the likelihood that the youths would enter employment, presumably through the parental resources and aspirations.

Barrier 2 Gender:.Gender affected employment, presumably through the structure of employment.

Barrier 3 Place of residence. Geographical place of residence also affected employment, presumably through the local employment opportunities as well as the alternative activities available locally.

H. Quality of the study: High, medium, low + comments
Medium (unique longitudinal register data, limited controls).

A. Specific reference: (author(s), year, title, source, pages)
Angelov, N., & Eliason, M. (2018). Wage subsidies targeted to jobseekers with disabilities: subsequent employment and disability retirement. IZA Journal of Labor Policy, 7(1), 1-37.

B. Main topic covered by this specific study and how it relates to the barriers identified
The long-term employment effect of wage subsidies to individuals with reduced work capacity.

C. Target group(s), information on how the target group is identified
25- to 54-year-old individuals with functional impairments that entail reduced work capacity and who are deemed not to be able to get or keep a job without the subsidy.

D. Location of the study: Country, region, city 
Sweden, 2000 (using data from 1992 to 2010).

E. Data (a.), specific measures (b.), and methods (c.), please also specify whether the study deploys cross-country data (d.)
a. Population register data (PES HÄNDEL database, the National Patient Register, the Longitudinal Integration Database for Health Insurance and Labour Market Studies).
b. Dependent variables: employment, disability retirement.
c. Comparisons of employment and retirement rates pre- and post-treatment.
d. No cross-country data is used.

F. Overall characteristic of the barriers identified by this study
A reduced work capacity implies that employment at the standard wage rate may be unprofitable for employers, and purpose of the wage subsidy is to compensate for this.

G. Brief description of the specific barrier(s) the target group faces as identified in this study
Barrier 1 High labor costs: Individuals with disabilities may experience difficulties finding employment due the employers’ perception of their low work capacity relative to their wage.

Barrier 2 Low wage subsidy: Individuals with disabilities may receive an insufficiently low wage subsidy in relation to their low work capacity.

H. Quality of the study: High, medium, low + comments
High (identification through matching, with long pre-treatment comparison period).

A. Specific reference: (author(s), year, title, source, pages)
Fogelgren, M., Ornstein, P., Rödin, M., & Thoursie, P. S. (2021). Is Supported Employment Effective for Young Adults with Disability Pension? Evidence from a Swedish Randomized Evaluation. Journal of Human Resources, 0319-10105R2.

B. Main topic covered by this specific study and how it relates to the barriers identified
Whether a supported employment rehabilitation intervention strategy can improve labor market opportunities for young adults on disability pension better than regular vocational rehabilitation.

C. Target group(s), information on how the target group is identified
Adults aged 19 to 29 on disability pension.

D. Location of the study: Country, region, city 
Sweden, 25 municipalities, 2015.

E. Data (a.), specific measures (b.), and methods (c.), please also specify whether the study deploys cross-country data (d.)
a. Register data.
b. Employment rate (various types of employment).
c: Randomized experiment.
d. No cross-country data was used.

F. Overall characteristic of the barriers identified by this study
Uncertainty among employers regarding the work capacities of individuals with disabilities.

G. Brief description of the specific barrier(s) the target group faces as identified in this study
Individuals with disabilities may, from the perspective of the employer, not only have a reduced work capacity but also be associated with different types of uncertainties. Wage subsidies may compensate for the first issue, but not for the uncertainties. These may instead be overcome by caseworkers supporting the employee and the employer during the hiring and employment period.

H. Quality of the study: High, medium, low + comments
High (large-scale randomized experiment).