Methodology

This report is divided in two parts: one focused on the historical and contemporary pan-Nordic and transnational dimensions of Nordic RWE and a second centering the prevention practices used. The two parts are different in terms of their focus and data, so they need two different research designs. In the following sections, these approaches are described.

Literature review of pan-Nordic and transnational dimensions of right-wing extremism

As mentioned in the introduction, the current report has set out to compile existing research and data about the historical and contemporary transnational dimensions of Nordic RWE. Accordingly, we will not present any new empirical data as part of this report but analyze already existing research: that is, a so-called literature review.

The literature review as a method of research has two major advantages. First, by integrating empirical findings from a large number of studies about a specific phenomenon, a literature review can advance knowledge (“this is what we know”) while helping show the gaps of knowledge (“this is what we do not know”). Second, a literature review is an effective tool to synthesize the research on particular dimensions of a certain phenomenon that have not been given attention previously (Snyder, 2019; Webster & Watson, 2002).

There are different types of literature reviews. In this report, we use what Snyder (2019) called an integrative review. An integrative review is typically used to “assess, critique, and synthesize the literature on a research topic in a way that enables new theoretical frameworks and perspectives to emerge” (Snyder, 2019, p. 335). As discussed by Torraco (2005) and in line with this report’s aim, the integrative review is ideal for synthesizing data to develop new knowledge because it “weaves the streams of research together to focus on core issues rather than merely reporting previous literature” (p. 362). Such an analysis can lay the foundations for future research by exposing new interesting themes and gaps to direct.

Compared with systematic literature reviews, which typically are about collecting data about evidence and effect from mainly quantitative research designs, the integrative review incorporates all available data sources to inform the analysis about the topic of interest (Snyder, 2019). The collection of data in integrative reviews is not limited to journal articles, but also covers books and “gray literature” such as research reports. In addition, the purpose of an integrative review is not to cover all research outputs ever published on the topic but rather to combine perspectives and insights from different fields or research traditions (Snyder, 2019). The data collection is similar to what has been called a targeted literature review, where experts in a field collect select high-quality data to present an informative, rather than all-encompassing, review of the literature on a topic (Huelin et al., 2015).

Research progress

We began our literature review by defining what type of organizations, groups, movements, or actor(s) were to be included: that is: a milieu which includes movements, organizations, and other actors that are authoritarian and/or anti-immigrant and exercise violence in rhetoric and/or practice. Based on this definition, the following criterion for inclusion was developed:

Does the highlighted organization, group, movement, or actor(s) fit the definition of RWE?

The second criterion was connected to the focus on transnational and pan-Nordic dimensions of RWE in the Nordic countries. We operationalized transnational connections as consisting of both material and cultural aspects. Material aspects involve the transnational cooperation between national RWE groups in the Nordics during, for example, demonstrations, or the organizing of RWE with the Nordic, not a specific country, as the geographical base (e.g., the NMR). By cultural dimensions, we refer to shared ideological or symbolic constructs about, for example, the Nordic as a common place for the white Nordic people. This leads to the following criterion for inclusion:

Does the publication contain data describing a transnational component?

The researchers involved in the project thereafter identified and conducted searches for literature that fit the two criteria within their country of focus. The literature gathered was then structured according to a template where the following variables were examined:

Title
Year
Author(s)
Type of literature
Keywords
Aim/research question
Main research context(s)
Research design
Data
Method of analysis
Discipline
Transnational component (describe in-depth)
Organizational type and name of study object
Actions/practices of focus in the study
Type of threat posed for society

Data were then categorized into three periods, which differ from each other in several decisive ways. The first period of the Nordic RWE, covering years from 1918 until 1945, was influenced by the German national socialism and, to a lesser extent, Italian fascism. Nordic movements both imitated them and tried to produce their own national or pan-Nordic interpretations of RWE. During this period, their political influence was at its peak. The second period, the period of the Cold War (1945–1990), the milieu had to adapt to the stigma of Hitler’s regime. This kept RWE in a marginal position, causing the milieu to find partners and support across the borders and somewhat revise their ideology. The third period, starting from the end of the Cold War and continuing until today, has been characterized by the opening of new avenues for political activities. Along with the growing extremist youth culture, the new means of communication have considerably increased the political opportunities of the milieu.

Literature review of prevention strategies and practices in the Nordics

The overview was carried out in accordance with an inductive approach trying to single out the most prevalent strategies and practices with the explicit goals of preventing or hindering recruitment to violent ideologies and groups. We have used the term strategies in a broad sense when referring to identified and utilized methods or practices for handling a specific problem. Accordingly, the practices and interventions are the operational aspects of the strategies. The national action plans in the Nordic countries are touched upon as overarching national strategies and as sources for information about national practices but are not regarded as practice or intervention.

Interventions against extremism takes many forms: national strategies, municipal prevention, and projects carried out by civil society organizations. To identify relevant data, we have used a combination of strategic selection and snowballing (Cohen et al., 2011). Initially, we consulted the national action plans for preventing violent extremism and the publications found on the websites of authorities and governmental institutions that handle the issue. We also consulted the Radicalization Awareness Network’s (RAN) collection of approaches and practices to find some of the Nordic initiatives. Following this step, we consulted researchers and policy makers in their respective Nordic countries, asking for initiatives that, to the best of their knowledge, were the most prevalent or well-known in their country. Finally, we searched the research literature on preventive measures and mentioning of specific initiatives.

Selection of practices

The possibility of mapping all the existing practices intended to prevent right-wing violent extremism is an intricate task. First, there are a lacuna of initiatives made with the mission of preventing antidemocratic tendencies and attitudes at different levels of society, yet there are no reliable registers or definitions that make such an endeavor likely to succeed. Second, initiatives and projects may have a broader scope than just preventing racism and RWE, meaning that initiatives to promote democracy or prevent violence in general can include the above-mentioned groups. Accordingly, we have chosen some inclusive and exclusive criteria for this overview.

The practices included the following:

Needs to be carried out in Denmark, Finland, Norway, or Sweden and have a preventive approach against recruitment to violent extremism
Have been used during the last five years (2017–2022)
Should focus on prevention against racism and/or extremism (especially RWE)

Some of the practices that were identified have a pan-European or Nordic geographical span, and we have included them if one or more Nordic countries are involved. In cases where practices have been updated, redeveloped, or have changed names, we have regarded them as long term if the overarching objectives are centering preventive actions against extremism. It is quite common to lump different forms of violent extremism together in plans and policies aimed at prevention. It has also been recognized that the terms extremism and radicalization tend to refer to militant Islamism (Sivenbring, 2016; Tiilikainen & Mankkinen, 2020). This has also been the case for the current review because most of the practices and strategies that we have identified have a broader scope than only RWE. If there is a specific focus on an extremist milieu, it is most often a violent Islamic one

This is also recognized in practices where violent extremism and radicalization are “lumped together” in introductory texts and, in formulating objectives, is often leaning toward militant Islamism, e.g., the Norwegian Basic training for correctional officers (RAN, 2019, p. 714-715) that train resource persons within correctional services. The training is designed to raise awareness among the participants of concepts and theories such as radical, extreme, terrorist, radicalization processes, various forms of violent extremism and terrorism, and the prison as an arena for radicalization and deradicalization. The description of the practice describes the relevant content, e.g., radicalization, phenomena, definitions, terms (1h), forms of violent extremism and terrorism (1h), radical Islam (2h), radicalization in prison (1-2h), mini-case work “Ismail” (6h), understanding religion in prison (2h), and foreign inmates (2h).

. We have included strategies and practices that have a wider scope, that is, if racism and RWE is explicitly mentioned or implied in introductory texts, descriptions, or examples.

The inclusion criteria that specify a focus on the prevention of recruitment to violent extremism means that prominent practices such as EXIT Sweden (designed to support people who leave a white supremacist milieu) that has been running for more than 20 years or the long-lived Danish Radicalisation Prevention and Deradicalisation in Prison and Probation (that focuses on support for young extremists in prison) are not included in the review. Neither are we including practices not targeting extremism or racism in its current description, even if they have a history of addressing these issues at some point in time. This entails for instance KPU Norway,

KPU = Kirkens ungdomsprosjekt, in English = the Church Youth Project.

which was facilitated in Kristiansand to handle neo-Nazi youths in the early 2000s.

We have certainly not succeeded in identifying all the efforts that have been made in the past five years, but in contact with stakeholders in the various Nordic countries, we have achieved a level of empiric saturation.

Coding

The identified practices have been coded on an Excel sheet according to the following categories: project owner; target groups; overarching aims; activities; active mechanisms; theory of change; evidence base; and evaluation. These were selected to provide readers with a sense of how the practice is structured, how it is believed to preventive, and the evidence supporting its effects.

Project owners: Identifies the authority or organizing body responsible for the practice; this is relevant for scrutinizing the placing of responsibilities of preventive measures, for instance, how they are financed and governed.
Operationalizing responsibility: Shows who carries out the preventive and activities and actions. This information can highlight ideas about expertise and resources.
Target groups: Describes the individuals who are to be included in the practice, both who are the beneficiaries and the ones who are to be prevented from engaging in racist or extremist groups and actions.
Overarching aims: Lists the intended outcomes of the practice. This categorization can shed light on the discourses of development, what is perceived as gaps in the current “state of affairs.”
Activities: The actions and measures performed within the project to reach the intended results; this helps to analyze the perception of active mechanisms.
Active mechanisms: The specific aspect that is believed to spark the effect or the positive change in the participants.
Theory of change: A theory of change (ToC) is connected to the active mechanisms in interventions and denotes a way to discern the intended model for the mechanisms that bring about the change (Bowen et al., 2020; Mayne, 2005). It is embedded in the statements that relates the activities and assumptions with the desired change or goal (Harrington, 2015). As Davies (2018) formulated, it is the logic of “If…then…because…” (p. 12). In this sense, ToC is generally used as a theory for evaluating the efficacy of interventions rather than mapping, analyzing, and comparing different kinds of interventions. However, we use ToC to identify the underlying assumptions about the pragmatic, cognitive, or emotive impact intended as an outcome and that leads to the change needed to prevent racism and violence.
Evaluation and evidence base: This category concerns the extent and kind of evaluation and eventual evidence base of the practice. As recognized in a systematic review of research on initiatives taken to prevent violent extremism, there have been interesting results, but no initiatives that can be considered as evidence based (Eriksson et al., 2018; Pistone et al., 2019). This is especially important in a future perspective for identifying the mechanisms that are the drivers of positive change and for activating them in preventive practices.

The findings from the two literature reviews are presented in the following chapters.