The existence of private cultural funding in the Nordic region

This chapter focuses on the prevalence of private cultural funding in the Nordic countries. It begins by outlining the various forms of private cultural funding and discussing the availability of relevant statistics. The chapter then examines the prevalence of private funding in each Nordic country, including, to some extent, the relationship between private and public cultural funding. The sources of private funding considered include household cultural expenditure, foundation support and donations, and sponsorship. In addition, the chapter reviews private funding in the museum and performing arts sectors in each country. It concludes with a brief international overview and a comparative summary of the Nordic countries.

Types of private cultural funding

Private funding for cultural activities consists of two main components: 1) private support and investments, for example foundation funding and sponsorship, and 2) earned income, including ticket sales, membership fees, revenue from shops and restaurants, commissions, and rental of premises. Much of private cultural funding comes from household expenditures, foundation support, donations and gifts, sponsorship, other private investments, and purchases of cultural services by both private and public actors (see, e.g., Myndigheten för kulturanalys, 2024a; Marker & Rasmussen, 2019). Voluntary work is sometimes also considered part of non-public funding (Myndigheten för kulturanalys, 2024a).

In relation to the livelihoods of individual cultural artists, various types of bread-and-butter jobs are sometimes highlighted as a fundamental part of their livelihood strategy (Alacovska & Bille, 2020; Flisbäck & Lindström, 2013; Lindström, 2016; Throsby & Zednik, 2011).

One issue highlighted in the introductory chapter is the challenge to distinguish between private and public funding, as both earned income and private support can include contributions from public actors—for example, through commissions for public activities or sponsorship from publicly-owned companies. The key distinction, therefore, lies between what is defined as public grants, subsidies, and support for the cultural sector, and other sources of funding for cultural activities. Regarding the Nordic countries' public funding of arts and culture, the report refers to Eurostat's statistics for cultural services. These statistics include public expenditure on arts and culture but does not include public expenditures for media, popular education, religious communities, sports and leisure (see Eurostat, 2019).

Data availability and reliability

The availability of statistics on private cultural funding in the Nordic countries varies. The lack of statistics is particularly noticeable in Iceland and the autonomous territories. Differences also exist in how statistics have been collected and in the definitions of the populations on which data are based. For statistics on private funding in the museum and performing arts sectors, there are relatively strong similarities across countries, but comparisons should still be made with caution. In terms of total public cultural funding, the report refers to Eurostat statistics on the Nordic countries public funding for cultural services, where funding for media, popular education, religious activities and sports and recreation is excluded (see Eurostat, 2019).

Difficult to assess the significance of household cultural expenditure

One area of statistics that requires separate consideration is the calculation of household cultural expenditure in different countries. Here, both the data and the calculation methods vary, making it difficult to assess the reliability of the statistics. Finland and Sweden rely on national accounts and calculate expenditure based on turnover data for cultural activities. However, the methodologies differ, and it is often unclear which activities are included in the turnover data. In Norway and Denmark, household cultural expenditure is estimated through household surveys, which differ in design between the two countries. These surveys are typically based on relatively small samples and often have low response rates. A common feature of all countries’ statistics on household cultural expenditure is that they include a substantial amount of cultural activity not directly targeted by public cultural policy, such as commercially driven sectors like film and music. Streaming services and major concert events, for example, are frequently included.

A common feature of estimates of household cultural expenditure is that they are not limited to spending on domestic culture in the Nordic countries. Moreover, it is not possible to determine how much of households’ expenditures goes directly to cultural creators and artists, and how much is allocated to actors at various stages of distribution. Another factor is that household expenditures include value-added tax (VAT). In summary, there are several reasons to treat data on household cultural expenditure with caution and to avoid interpreting it as direct funding for cultural activities in the Nordic countries. At the same time, it is reasonable to assume that household cultural expenditure plays an important role in financing the cultural sector, although its precise significance is difficult to assess. For this reason, household cultural expenditure is only briefly mentioned below in the introduction to the country-specific accounts.

Private cultural funding in Denmark

In Denmark there are historical data on the relationship between private and public cultural funding. During the first half of the 20th century, private cultural funding—including household expenditure—was estimated to account for between 80 and 90 per cent of total funding. Today, the share is estimated at just over 50 per cent (Lund & Berg, 2016). Estimates of household expenditure vary, but when including spending on streaming services, museums, libraries, books, theatre, cinema and concerts, the total amounts to just under DKK 14 billion in 2023. According to these calculations, household expenditure is dominated by spending on streaming services (Danmarks Statistik, 2025a). Total public funding for cultural services was estimated at DKK 15.6 billion in the same year (Eurostat, 2025; see also Lund & Berg, 2016 for a calculation and estimate of public and private funding).

Foundation funding and donations to culture in Denmark

Funding from private foundations plays a significant role in the cultural sector in Denmark. While such funding has a long history, there has been a marked increase in the distribution of foundation grant to cultural activities since the 1990s (see, e.g., Lund & Berg, 2016).

Figure 2 shows Danish foundations’ funding for cultural purposes in 2016–2023. The total amount varies between years but never falls below DKK 2 billion. This represents a significantly higher level of foundation funding for culture than in any other Nordic country. For example, the allocation of DKK 2.6 billion in 2022 (at current prices) can be compared with Swedish foundations’ support for culture, which in the same year was estimated at between SEK 331 million and SEK 631 million (Myndigheten för kulturanalys 2024a, p. 76).

Figure 2. Danish foundation funding to cultural purposes 2016–2023, million DKK, 2023 prices

Source: Danmarks statistik, 2025c; Fondenes Videnscenter, 2023, 2025. (Compiled by Kulturanalys Norden)

A large number of foundations allocate funding to culture, ranging from 574 to 2,042 different foundations between 2017 and 2021. At the same time, cultural funding is dominated by a small number of major foundations. In 2021, 977 foundations distributed just under DKK 3 billion to culture, with 10 foundations accounting for 68 per cent of the total (Fondenes Videnscenter, 2023, p. 11f).

Funding from Danish foundations also has a distinct focus. The majority of this funding is directed towards museums, cultural heritage, and architecture, which together received between 55 and 66 per cent of all foundation funding for culture in 2016–2023. The museum sector alone accounted for over 40 per cent of the total in several of these years. By comparison, the performing arts received between 5 and 14 per cent of foundation grants during the same period. Grants for film production and cinema activities made up less than 1 per cent of cultural foundation funding in most years (Danmarks Statistik, 2025c).

A notable characteristic of Danish foundation funding for culture is that more than 95 per cent is directed to activities, with very little allocated to individual artists (Danmarks Statistik, 2025d). Furthermore, a substantial share—between 30 and 50 per cent during 2016–2023—was used for renovations and construction projects. This contrasts sharply with public cultural funding, of which less than 5 per cent is allocated to such expenditures (Danmarks Statistik, 2025e; Fondenes Videnscenter, 2023). According to Bache (2021, p. 296), an informal division of roles has emerged in Denmark, where public funding primarily covers core activities and operating costs, while foundations focus on construction projects, special exhibitions, and temporary initiatives.

Of the total allocation from Danish foundations to public-benefit purposes, between 10 and 15 per cent was directed to culture during the period 2019–2023. The largest share of foundation funding goes to research, while health, education, social work, and international humanitarian efforts are also important areas of support. In recent years, a notable trend has been an increasing allocation of funds to non-public-benefit purposes, primarily directed to individuals and families (Fondenes Videnscenter, 2025).

Statistics on other private gifts and donations to cultural activities are not available in Denmark. Some data are available that may indicate the order of magnitude. As mentioned in previous sections, corporate donations to cultural activities are tax deductible in Denmark. An analysis by the Ministry of Taxation shows that the amount of such tax-deductible donations was just under DKK 150 million per year during the period 2011–2020 (Skatteministeriet, 2023).

Cultural sponsorship in Denmark

There is a lack of aggregated and up-to-date data on cultural sponsorship in Denmark. A study from 2000 estimated total sponsorship of Danish cultural activities at around DKK 200 million (Rosenkrands, 2002). Previous research suggests that the level of cultural sponsorship is comparable to that in the rest of the Nordic region. In 2005, cultural and festival sponsorship accounted for 17 per cent of the Danish sponsorship market, while 74 per cent went to sports (Gran & Hofplass, 2007, pp. 18–19). The share of cultural sponsorship in total sponsorship is similar to the sponsorship markets in Norway and Finland, where data availability is better.

Private funding in museums and the performing arts sector

According to Bache (2021, p. 299), state-supported museums and theatres in Denmark have increased their private funding since the 1980s, primarily through higher admission revenues, foundation support, and sponsorship income. Marker and Rasmussen (2019, p. 99) note in their study of the Danish museum sector that private funding for cultural history museums, for example, rose from just under 18 per cent in 1964–1967 to almost 53 per cent in 2014–2017.

Figure 3 shows the proportion of private funding—that is, income other than public subsidies and grants—for state-recognised museums and state-subsidised performing arts activities in Denmark during 2010–2023. In 2023, the statistics covered 97 museums with total revenues of approximately DKK 3 billion and 131 performing arts activities with total revenues of approximately DKK 2.3 billion. Except for the pandemic years, the trend for museums indicates a steady increase in private funding over time. In contrast, private funding for performing arts organisations has remained stable, a pattern also confirmed by available statistics prior to 2015. For museums, private funding has exceeded 50 per cent over the past 10 years, which is a higher share of private funding than in the rest of the Nordic region. For performing arts activities, private funding has remained just above 30 per cent since 2015, if the pandemic years are excluded.

Figure 3. Private funding of state-supported museums and performing arts organisations, percentage of total income

Source: Danmarks statistik, 2025b; Kulturministeriet, 2019b, 2023; Kulturstyrelsen, 2012, 2013, 2014. (compiled by Kulturanalys Norden)

For state-recognised museums, it is possible to break down private funding into different types of income (see Figure 4). The figure shows the significant importance of admission fees and non-public support (primarily foundation funding). In 2022, these two sources together accounted for 33 per cent of total income. The increasing importance of admission revenue over time is also confirmed by statistics for the period prior to 2012–2017 (see Marker & Rasmussen, 2019, p. 100). Income from archaeological excavations and other earned income (e.g., venue hire and contract work) is also significant for museums in Denmark.

Figure 4. Private funding of state-supported museums by types of income, percentage of total income

Source: Kulturministeriet, 2023, s 26ff. (compiled by Kulturanalys Norden)

Funding of Danish museums through archaeological excavations has no equivalent in other Nordic countries. This source of income is particularly important for cultural history museums, whereas art museums, for example, do not receive any such funding (Ministry of Culture, 2023, p. 31). The rationale behind this funding is that Danish museums are responsible for conducting archaeological excavations required by law for major construction projects, with the costs covered by the developer, whether public or private (Larsen & Nørskov, 2013). In other Nordic countries, the legislation regarding archaeological excavations functions differently, which has implied that these excavations are carried out to a greater extent by actors other than museums.

For performing arts institutions, up-to-date statistics on various types of income are lacking. However, during 2010–2015, ticket revenues accounted for over 70 per cent of private funding (Danmarks Statistik, 2025b). It is evident for both museums and performing arts activities that the share of private funding varies considerably between different types of institutions (Marker & Rasmussen, 2019, p. 107; Kulturens analyseinstitut, 2025a). There are also differences in the types of private funding received: for example, art museums obtain a large proportion of their income from foundations, whereas this type of funding represents a smaller share for several other museum categories (Kulturministeriet, 2023).

In addition to statistics on museums and performing arts, there is also a smaller study describing the income of art galleries. This reinforces the picture of a relatively large proportion of private foundation funding in Denmark. According to a study conducted on behalf of the Association of Art Galleries in Denmark, private foundations funding accounted for 30 per cent of art galleries' total income in 2022. The same year the total share of private funding was 46 per cent (Seismonaut, 2023, p. 13).

Private cultural funding in Finland

For Finland, no comparative figures are available showing how public and private cultural funding has developed historically. According to Eurostat, public funding to cultural services amounted to approximately €1.65 billion in 2023 (Eurostat, 2025), while other estimates suggest more than €2 billion in public funding for cultural services (see, e.g., Sokka, 2025, p. 77; Statsrådet, 2024, p. 14). Estimates of household cultural expenditure range from around €2 billion in 2022 to €2.6 billion in 2023 (e.g., Sokka, 2025; Statsrådet, 2024; see also Statistics Finland, 2025). In addition to this, private sponsorship contributes to funding, but foundation support plays an even more significant role, making it a relatively important source of private cultural funding in Finland.

Foundation funding and donations to culture in Finland

Foundation funding for culture in Finland is not on the same scale as in Denmark, but it is higher than in both Norway and Sweden, particularly when considered in relation to population size and the countries’ economic scale. Historical data are limited, but several sources indicate that foundation grants for arts and cultural purposes increased, especially from the early 1990s onwards (see Hirvi-Ijäs, 2014, p. 63; Hirvi-Ijäs et al., 2021, p. 11). Research on foundations’ distributions to other public benefit purposes points to a similar trend (Tiitta, 2018).

Figure 5 illustrates the development of foundation funding for culture between 2010 and 2024. Adjusted for 2024 prices foundation funding for cultural purposes increased by more than 150 per cent over this period.

Figur 5. Figure 5. Foundation funding to cultural purposes 2010–2024, million €, 2024 prices.

Source: Aula research, 2019; Gaia Consulting Oy, 2020a, 2020b, 2021, 2022, 2023. Sweco Finland Oy, 2025. (compiled by Kulturanalys Norden)

The foundation funding for culture in Finland does not focus on museums, cultural heritage and architecture to the same extent as in Denmark. Museums and cultural heritage activities received extra foundation support during the pandemic, but otherwise Finnish foundation funding is relatively evenly distributed between the six areas of music, visual arts, museums and cultural heritage, literature, performing arts and cultural promotion. Each of these areas receive, depending on year, between 10 to 20 per cent yearly of total foundation funding to culture in Finland. In addition to this, smaller shares also go to film art, the acquisition of artistic works, design and crafts, architecture and construction art. In Finland, art and culture accounted for 20–24 per cent of the total support provided by foundations in the years 2018–2023, which is a larger share compared to Denmark. The foundation funding in general is dominated by the field of research (see Aula research, 2019; Gaia Consulting Oy, 2020a, 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023). When it comes to other types of gifts and donations to cultural activities in the country, there are no statistics for this type of funding in Finland.

Cultural sponsorship in Finland

Cultural sponsorship in Finland is compiled by the consulting firm Sponsor Insight Finland. The statistics on cultural sponsorship also include support for various types of festivals and are therefore referred to here as cultural and festival sponsorship. Figure 6 shows the total scope of cultural and festival sponsorship and its share of total sponsorship. During the period 2009–2024, culture and festival sponsorship has ranged between €25 million and €60 million. Notably, both the total amount and the share of total sponsorship declined sharply during the pandemic, but these figures have since recovered.

Figure 6. The development of cultural and festival sponsorship in Finland in 2009–2024, in million € (2024 prices), and as a share of total sponsorship, in percentage.

Source: Sponsor Insight Finland, 2024, 2025. (compiled by Kulturanalys Norden)

As in other Nordic countries, the Finnish sponsorship market is dominated by sports sponsorship. Since 2009, sports sponsorship has accounted for 55–65 per cent of the total, and since 2018 it has remained consistently above 60 per cent. However, sports sponsorship is slightly less dominant in Finland than in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark.

Private funding in museums and the performing arts sector

Based on annual reports from the Finnish Heritage Agency and the expert organisation Tinfo, it is possible to compile statistics on the private funding of museums and performing arts activities in Finland. The statistics cover 140–165 professional museums

The statistics include museums that meet the conditions of the Finnish Museums Act (see Finlex 314/2019). The statistics include museums with a few full-time employees up to more than a hundred full-time employees, and museums with both public and non-public owners.

and 58–71 state-supported performing arts activities

The majority of performing arts activities are spoken theatre, but dance companies, circus activities and operas are also included. The number of full-time employees varies from less than ten to several hundred.

, depending on the year. In 2023, the museums included in the statistics had total revenues of €317 million (Museiverket, 2024a, 2024b), while performing arts activities had total revenues of €303 million in the same year (Tinfo, 2024).

Figure 7 shows the development of private funding for museum and performing arts activities in 2007–2023. The share of private funding increased slightly until 2019 and has recovered after the pandemic. The most obvious difference compared to Denmark is the smaller share of private funding among museums in Finland. In the case of performing arts activities, the share of private funding is at roughly the same level as in Denmark.

Figure 7. Private funding of professional museums and state-supported performing arts organisations, percentage of total income

Source: Museiverket, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025; Tinfo, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025. (compiled by Kulturanalys Norden). *Includes the item “other contributions”, which, particularly during the pandemic years, contains public contributions.

Figure 8 presents the private funding of museums broken down by different types of income. The data indicate that the increase in private funding is mainly driven by higher admission revenues, while other types of income do not show any clear trend. It is also notable that sponsorship accounts for less than 1 per cent of total funding in all years. The statistics further reveal substantial variation in the share of private funding between different museums. Some museums receive more than 90 per cent of their funding from public grants, while others have a private funding share exceeding 70 per cent. The generally lower share of private funding in Finnish museums compared with Danish museums appears to result from lower revenues from admission fees, foundation grants, and archaeological excavations.

Figure 8. Private funding of Finnish professional museums by type of income, percentage of total income.

Source: Museiverket, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025. (Compiled by Kulturanalys Norden) *“Other funding” mainly includes contributions from private actors (excluding sponsors) and funding through museums’ own capital.

For Finnish performing arts activities, it is not possible to break down private funding into different types of income in the same way as for museums. However, the statistics indicate that private funding is predominantly derived from ticket sales, similar to the pattern observed in Denmark. Excluding the pandemic years, ticket revenues account for more than 70 per cent of private funding and over 20 per cent of total revenues in the performing arts sector as a whole. The data also show substantial variation between different activities, ranging from less than 10 per cent to over 50 per cent—and in some cases over 70 per cent—of total funding coming from private sources. In most cases, these differences are largely explained by variations in ticket revenues (see, e.g., Tinfo, 2024, p. 54).

Tinfo also publishes statistics on independent performing arts groups receiving public funding. For these groups, total funding is at a considerably lower level. Regarding the share of private funding, the statistics indicate that it has generally been higher for independent theatre groups, averaging around 40 per cent over time. For independent dance groups, the share of private funding has been more variable, at times higher and at other times lower than that of state-supported performing arts activities (see, e.g., Tinfo, 2016, 2019, 2023).

Private cultural funding in Iceland

Public funding in Iceland has shown an upward trend in real terms since 2012 but has remained relatively stable as a share of GDP and as a share of public expenditure in the country. For 2023 total public funding for cultural services amounted to ISK 43.2 billion (Eurostat, 2025). Mapping private cultural funding in Iceland has proven challenging. Basic data on household expenditure for culture and recreation indicate a steady increase over time, except during the pandemic years. However, these figures include spending on a broad range of items beyond cultural goods and services (see Statistics Iceland, 2025a).

It has been possible to compile statistics on the private funding of Icelandic performing arts activities. The data cover five activities with total income of approximately ISK 3.8 billion. The share of private funding ranges between 33 and 42 per cent, except during the pandemic. As in other Nordic countries, private funding is dominated by ticket revenues. Income from sponsorship and advertising is very limited and shows a declining trend.

Figure 9. Private funding for performing arts organisations by type of income, percentage of total income.

Source: Statistics Iceland, 2025b.

Private cultural funding in Norway

The distribution between private and public cultural funding in Norway is similar to that of Denmark and Finland, but seemingly with a slightly greater emphasis on public funding. According to Eurostat, public funding for cultural services amounted to approximately NOK 26 billion in 2023, (Eurostat, 2025). If sponsorship, foundation funding and household expenditure are included, private cultural funding in the same year is estimated at just under NOK 21 billion (see Kulturdirektoratet, 2024b; Sponsor Insight, 2024).

Household cultural expenditures can be estimated at just under NOK 19 billion in 2022. Household expenditure is dominated by streaming services for music and film, but cinema, theatre, concerts and book purchases are also relatively significant (see, e.g., Statistisk Sentralbyrå, 2024).

Foundation funding and donations to culture in Norway

There are no time series available for foundation funding of culture in Norway. Historically, however, foundations—particularly the savings bank foundations that emerged in the 19th century—have supported cultural and artistic purposes. A 1998 survey found that 29 per cent of contributing foundations identified culture as their main focus, compared with 10 per cent in Sweden at the same time (Dugstad & Lorentzen, 2019, p. 20). A 2012 survey by Lotteri- og Stiftelsetilsynet reported total foundation funding in Norway at just over NOK 3 billion, with 12 per cent allocated to cultural purposes. This corresponds to cultural funding of just over NOK 500 million in 2023 prices. However, this figure is likely somewhat underestimated, as not all foundations responded to the survey (Stiftelsetilsynet, 2012, pp. 10–20).

The most recent survey was conducted by Arts and Culture Norway. Based on this survey, foundation funding for culture in 2023 is estimated at approximately NOK 1 billion. This amount is lower than in Denmark and Finland but higher than in Sweden. The survey also indicates that just over half of foundation funding for culture comes from only 10 foundations. However, it does not provide information on how foundation funding is distributed across different cultural sectors (Kulturdirektoratet, 2024b).

Cultural sponsorship in Norway

Norwegian statistics include separate categories for cultural sponsorship and festival sponsorship. Cultural sponsorship includes sponsorship of performing arts, museums, cultural centres, music, cultural mediation and production, galleries and art exhibitions, and other cultural activities. Festival sponsorship includes commercial music festivals, city festivals, beach festivals and festivals focusing on social issues (see, e.g., Sponsor Insight, 2024, p. 42). Figure 10 shows (in inflation-adjusted prices) the development of total cultural and festival sponsorship and the development broken down into festival sponsorship and cultural sponsorship.Figure 11 shows the development of festival sponsorship and cultural sponsorship as a share of total sponsorship in Norway.

The statistics indicate that cultural sponsorship has declined over time, both in absolute terms and as a share of total sponsorship. In 2023, cultural sponsorship accounted for approximately 8 per cent of total sponsorship, the lowest share since measurements began (see Figure 11). Festival sponsorship, by contrast, amounted to just over NOK 600 million in 2023 and shows a positive trend both in absolute terms and as a share of total sponsorship, aside from a marked decline during the pandemic. Combined, cultural and festival sponsorship has increased over time, reaching just over NOK 1.1 billion in 2023. Norway therefore has higher total sponsorship for culture and festivals than Finland and Sweden (where cultural sponsorship is reported to include festivals). At the same time, sponsorship of cultural activities more closely aligned with cultural policy shows a declining trend in Norway.

Figure 10. The development of cultural sponsorship and festival sponsorship in Norway 2009–2023, million NOK, 2023 prices.

Source: Sponsor Insight, 2024, p. 13. (compiled by Kulturanalys Norden)

Figure 11. The development of cultural sponsorship and festival sponsorship, percentage of total sponsorship in Norway

Source: Sponsor Insight, 2024, p. 13. (compiled by Kulturanalys Norden)

The Norwegian sponsorship market in general is dominated by sports, an area that has received over 70 per cent of total sponsorship since 2009. Social sponsorship accounted for less than 9 per cent in 2009, but since 2014 it has remained stable at between 11 and 12 per cent and has increased its share in relation to cultural sponsorship, which is reminiscent of the development in Sweden. Total sponsorship has increased by 29 per cent between 2009 and 2023 based on inflation-adjusted prices (see Sponsor Insight, 2024, p. 13f).

Private funding in museums and the performing arts sector

Norway also has statistics on private funding for museums and performing arts activities, which are collected and processed by Statistics Norway in collaboration with Arts and Culture Norway. The museum statistics cover museums with more than one full-time employee, and in 2024, 101 museums with a total income of NOK 7.8 billion were included.

The fact that so few museums account for such a large turnover is partly due to the fact that many museum activities in Norway are organised into larger units.

Of these, 67 museums receive direct support through the state budget. The performing arts statistics cover 54 state-supported performing arts activities with total revenues of approximately NOK 4.8 billion (Kulturdirektoratet, 2025c; Statistiska Sentralbyrån, 2025a, 2025b).

In 2024, private funding accounted for 28 per cent of museum income and 20 per cent of performing arts income (see Figure 12). This means that public funding represented just over 70 per cent of museum income and 80 per cent of performing arts income. For performing arts activities, this share of private funding is smaller than in Finland, while for museums, it is roughly comparable to the Finnish level. Looking further back, private funding for performing arts in Norway appears to have increased over time. In 1980, for example, nearly all public performing arts institutions received over 90 per cent of their funding from public sources (Kyrkje- og undervisningsdepartementet, 1981, p. 54; see also Mangset & Hylland, 2017, p. 90).

Figure 12. Private funding of professional museum and state-supported performing arts organisations, percentage of total income.

Source: Kulturdirektoratet, 2025c; Statistiska Sentralbyrån, 2025a, 2025b. (compiled by Kulturanalys Norden)

For museums, it is possible to break down private funding into different types of income (see Figure 13). Private funding is dominated by ticket sales, sales of goods and services, and other earned income. In 2024, gifts and donations accounted for 3 per cent, while sponsorship represented less than 1 per cent.

Figure 13. Private funding of museums in Norway by type of income, percentage of total income.

Source: Statistiska Sentralbyrån, 2025a, 2025b. (compiled by Kulturanalys Norden)

*For year 2013 and 2014 donations are included in Sponsorship.

For state-supported performing arts activities, private funding is dominated by ticket revenues. In 2024, ticket sales accounted for just under 54 per cent of private funding and just under 11 per cent of performing arts activities’ total income (Kulturdirektoratet, 2025c). Sponsorship and donations together represented 2 per cent of total funding for performing arts activities. Previous studies on the funding of performing arts activities indicate a similar significance of sponsorship and donations (see, e.g., Gran & Gjærum, 2019, p. 126f; Gran & Hofplass, 2007, p. 20; Mangset & Hylland, 2017, p. 87).

Private cultural funding in Sweden

Based on previous compilations by the Myndigheten för kulturanalys of public cultural expenditure and private cultural funding, it is assessed that the distribution between public and private funding in Sweden is similar to that in other Nordic countries. According to the agency’s 2024 survey, private cultural funding amounted to just under SEK 28 billion in 2023 (Myndigheten för kulturanalys, 2024a). Total public funding for cultural services in the same year was almost SEK 32 billion (Eurostat, 2025).

Regarding household expenditures, Myndigheten för kulturanalys conducted a survey in 2023 covering spending on cinema, theatre, concerts, museums, libraries, study associations, cultural schools, streamed music, and both streamed and printed books. The survey was based on Statistics Sweden’s national accounts calculations and data from two industry associations in the music and literature sectors. Household cultural expenditure was estimated at just over SEK 26 billion in 2023. According to the survey, spending is dominated by streaming services and expenses for cinema, theatre, concerts and books (Myndigheten för kulturanalys, 2024a, p. 65ff).

Foundation funding and donations to culture in Sweden

As in Norway, Sweden lacks time series data on cultural funding from foundations. In 2022, Myndigheten för kulturanalys conducted a survey based on a questionnaire sent to foundations with cultural objectives, supplemented by aggregated data from foundations’ income tax returns. The survey estimated that total cultural funding from Swedish foundations ranged between SEK 331 and 631 million in 2022 (Myndigheten för kulturanalys, 2024a, p. 73). According to the same survey, approximately two-thirds of foundations’ contributions were allocated to activities and organisations, while one-third went to individual cultural artists. In Sweden this is concentrated to relatively few foundations, meaning that 15 foundations distributed 73 percent of all foundation funding to culture in Sweden.

This means that foundation funding for culture is significantly lower in Sweden than in the rest of the Nordic region, especially when considering that Sweden is a country with a larger population and a larger overall economy. The difference is not due to the overall level of foundation funding, but rather that a smaller proportion is allocated to art and culture. Data are limited, but according to a 2002 calculation by Wijkström and Einarsson (2004, p. 79), just over 2 per cent of private endowment foundations’ support went to cultural and leisure purposes. Nearly 80 per cent of foundation funding was directed to research and education, and about 13 per cent to social care and health. Since 2002, the establishment of new foundations with funding of culture and leisure as their main purpose has increased and compared to the estimated SEK 177 million allocated to culture in 2002, foundation funding for culture has also grown in Sweden (see Wijkström & Einarsson, 2004, 2018; see also Myndigheten för kulturanalys, 2024a, p. 72f). The recognition of culture as a public benefit purpose in 2014 may have contributed to this development.

Cultural sponsorship in Sweden

Cultural sponsorship in Sweden also includes festival sponsorship and is therefore referred to as cultural and festival sponsorship. Figure 14 shows the development of cultural and festival sponsorship in Sweden between 2005 and 2024. The figure indicates that cultural and festival sponsorship increased until 2015, after which the trend turned downward, with a further decline during the pandemic. However, total sponsorship—including sports and social sponsorship—did not decrease in the same way, suggesting that the decline in cultural sponsorship cannot be attributed solely to pandemic effects. This is illustrated in Figure 14 by the declining share of cultural and festival sponsorship in total sponsorship, which reached its lowest level since measurements began in 2005, before showing a slight recovery in 2024. Sports sponsorship accounted for 70–75 per cent of total sponsorship during the measurement period, while social sponsorship increased its share from 13.5 per cent in 2005 to 18 per cent in 2024. Overall, there is a negative trend for cultural and festival sponsorship in Sweden.

Figure 14. The development of cultural and festival sponsorship, in million SEK (2024 prices) and cultural and festival sponsorship as percentage of total sponsorship.

Source: Institutet för reklam och mediestatistik, 2013, 2015, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025. (Compiled by Kulturanalys Norden)

Private funding in museums and the performing arts sector

In Sweden, statistics are available on private funding for museums and performing arts activities. The statistics primarily cover institutions with ten or more full-time employees. Among museums, several operate without public funding, whereas the statistics for performing arts activities include only those that receive public support. In total, 94 museums and 106 performing arts organisations were included in the 2023 statistics. The total revenue of the museums in 2023 was approximately SEK 6.1 billion, while the total revenue of the performing arts organisations was just under SEK 6.2 billion (see also Table 2)

Figure 15 shows the proportion of private funding for the museums and performing arts organisations included in the statistics. Apart from during the pandemic, the proportion of private funding for museums is 30–39 per cent during the period 2011–2024 and for performing arts organisations 19–22 per cent during the period 2019–2023. The proportion of private funding in the performing arts sector is similar to that of Norway, while the proportion of private funding for museums is higher in Sweden, which seems to be due to differences in admission revenue (see Figure 13 and Figure 16).

Figure 15. Private funding* for museums and performing arts organisations in Sweden, percentage of total income.

Source: Myndigheten för kulturanalys, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021a, 2022a, 2022b, 2022c 2023a, 2023b, 2024b, 2024c, 2025.

*Private funding includes "other contributions", which may include certain contributions from public actors. Other contributions range between 0 and 3 per cent per year.

For museums, it is possible to divide private funding into different types of income (see Figure 16). Excluding the pandemic years, the largest share of private funding comes from admission fees, which in 2024 account for 17 per cent of museums' total funding.

Figure 16. Private funding for museums in Sweden by type of income, percentage of total income.

Source: Myndigheten för kulturanalys, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021a, 2022a, 2023b, 2024b, 2025.

*Other own income includes the sub-item “other contributions”, which may contain contributions from public actors. The total share of other contributions varies between 1 and 3 per cent per year.

Ticket revenues also constitute an important part of private funding for performing arts activities, while income from sponsorship and donations together account for approximately half a per cent of total funding and approximately 2.6 per cent of private funding.

In Myndigheten för kulturanalys' survey of private funding in the cultural sector, published in 2024, a special survey was conducted of total private funding among larger (involving primarily more than 10 full-time employees) and smaller (involving primarily fewer than 10 full-time employees) activities in the areas of museums and performing arts (see Table 2). The survey shows that smaller organisations, as a group, have a higher proportion of self-financing. An important explanation for this is that the larger organisations include publicly-owned organisation with public assignments. As shown in the table, the smaller organisations are far more numerous but account for only a small proportion of total revenue in each cultural area. Consequently, their impact on the overall proportion of private funding for these cultural areas is relatively limited.

Table 2. Share of private funding for larger and smaller museums and performing arts organisations in 2023, percentage of total income.

	Larger organisations			Smaller organisations			All organisations
	Number of organisations	Total income SEK million	Private funding, (%)	Number of organisations	Total income SEK million	Private funding, (%)	Private funding, (%)
Museums	94	6 093	36 %	363	428	67 %	38 %
Performing arts	106	6 169	19 %	289	523	43 %	21 %

Source: Myndigheten för kulturanalys, 2024a, p. 80.

As in other Nordic countries, there are significant differences between activities in Sweden in terms of the proportion of private funding. Figure 17 shows the share of private funding relative to total income for performing arts activities in Sweden. For publicly-owned performing arts organisations, private funding ranges from 3 to 30 per cent, while independent performing arts organisations have private funding ranging from 0 to 95 per cent. Even among museums, there is considerable variation in the proportion of private funding (Myndigheten för kulturanalys, 2024a, p. 253ff).

Figure 17. Private funding as share of total income for performing arts organisations in Sweden, in percentage.

Source: Myndigheten för kulturanalys 2024a, p. 256f.

Voluntary work as a source of funding

For Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden, statistics on voluntary work in the cultural sector are available to varying degrees. In Norway and Sweden, compilations of voluntary efforts in the cultural sector have been carried out, indicating that these are of similar importance in both countries (see Kulturdirektoratet, 2024b; Myndigheten för kulturanalys, 2024a). However, there are also statistics for individual cultural areas, such as museums, that point to the importance of these efforts as part of the livelihood strategy of many cultural activities (see Kulturdirektoratet, 2024a; Kulturministeriet, 2019b; Museiverket, 2024b; Myndigheten för kulturanalys, 2024b). For example, Finnish museum statistics show that approximately half of the museums included in the statistics organise volunteer work (Museiverket, 2024b, p. 3; see also Myndigheten för kulturanalys, 2024a, p. 87f).

International perspective

Outside the Nordic region, several countries have a different funding structure for the cultural sector. Typical examples are the United States and the United Kingdom, which historically—and still today—take a distinct approach to financing cultural life. In the United States, the funding of cultural activities often relies on a combination of substantial admission and sales revenues, significant foundation funding, private donations, a smaller share of public funding, and sponsorship income. While some larger cultural institutions receive a greater proportion of public funding, public funding often accounts for less than 20 per cent of total organisational income. Sponsorship revenue is relatively small at the aggregate level compared with funding from foundations and donations (National Endowment for the Arts, 2004, 2012; see also Besana, 2012; Renz, 1994; SMU Data Arts, 2025a, 2025b). Another notable feature in the United States is that public funding for arts and culture is frequently debated and challenged, for example through recurring threats to terminate the federal public funding body, the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) (Mulcahy, 2020; Wilkerson, 2012).

The United Kingdom differs from both the United States and the Nordic countries in terms of funding. In the UK, the general aim is a funding structure divided into three rather equal parts: 1) public support, 2) earned income from mainly admission fees, sales and commissions, and 3) private support in the form of investments (e.g., sponsorship) and donations from companies, foundations or private individuals. According to reports from the Arts Council England, public funding also accounts for between a quarter and a third of the funding for non-profit cultural activities, while earned income accounts for around half and private support for around a fifth of total income. As in the United States, corporate sponsorship accounts for a smaller share than foundation funding and donations (Arts Council England, 2019; Arts Council England, 2022; Arts Council England, 2025).

Summary and comparison

The financing structure of the cultural sector in the Nordic countries displays relatively strong similarities. Household cultural expenditure is an important source of private financing, which is also confirmed by the fact that admission or ticket revenues are an important source of private funding for museums and performing arts organisations. At the same time, there are significant differences. One of these is the level of foundation funding in the countries. In a Nordic comparison, foundation funding is strikingly high in Denmark and strikingly low in Sweden. The primary explanation appears to lie in historical differences in legislation concerning foundations across the Nordic countries. This legislation has been particularly favourable for cultural foundation funding in Denmark, and particularly unfavourable in Sweden. In Sweden, this is largely because culture was not recognised as a public benefit purpose until 2014. Finland, by contrast, shows a particularly positive trend in the development of foundation funding for culture.

Where statistics are available, sponsorship accounts for no more than slightly over 1 per cent of total funding in the museum and performing arts sectors in the Nordic region. At an overall level, the trend for culture and festival sponsorship is negative in Sweden, both in absolute terms and as a share of total sponsorship. The same applies to what is defined as culture sponsorship in Norway, while festival sponsorship has developed more positively. Looking at festival and culture sponsorship as a whole, it is greater in Norway than in Finland and Sweden.

Private funding for museums is particularly high in Denmark, driven by larger contributions from foundations, income from archaeological excavations, and high admission revenues compared with other Nordic countries. In the performing arts sector, the share of private funding appears to be higher in Denmark, Finland, and Iceland than in Norway and Sweden. It is important to note that there are considerable differences between individual cultural activities in terms of the balance between private and public funding.