2. Setting the scene: Promoting digitalisation in the Nordic countries

In this study, we take the empirical point of departure from the five Nordic countries: Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. Each country is highly digitalised (Nordic Council of Ministers, 2022) and has increasingly digitalised public sectors (DESI, 2024). At the same time, these five countries have also seen a rapid increase in the population with foreign-born backgrounds in recent years (Heleniak, 2024). However, national differences exist between the five countries in terms of policy approaches to digitalisation, digital inclusion, and integration, making these five countries an interesting empirical point of departure for this type of research.

The rapid digitalisation of the public sector in the Nordic societies also entails that those individuals not yet digitalised risk being digitally left behind and unable to participate in society. While intertwined and significantly context-specific, several groups are viewed as being at risk of digital exclusion in the Nordic region, ranging from some rural populations, some people with disabilities, some older adults, some low-income individuals, and some immigrants, facing various types of barriers (Jessen et al., 2024). As noted above, a common denominator in the definition of digital inclusion is the interplay between digital accessibility and capabilities barriers (Jessen & Vasilevskaya, 2025). Figure 1 illustrates these different types of barriers. These barriers are often intertwined and vary for each individual at risk of digital exclusion (Digital Europe, 2024).

Figure 1: Common barriers to digital inclusion (adapted from Digital Europe, 2024, p.9).

Civic engagement through organised volunteerism has previously been associated with something unique for the Nordic region and has been linked to the development of the Nordic welfare societies (e.g., Arnesen et al., 2016; Henriksen et al., 2019). In the Nordics, NGOs have an important role in advancing digital inclusion for immigrant women (as well as other groups in society) due to their direct access to and contact with target groups, making them a vital source of knowledge about the challenges and needs these groups face. The NGOs can act as a bridge between the public sector and the target groups, engaging in advocacy and influence work. Additionally, NGOs focus on capacity building, helping the target groups develop necessary skills and capabilities (Jessen et al., 2024). National authorities in the Nordic countries emphasise the importance of NGOs as cooperation partners due to their ability to reach hard-to-reach groups and their in-depth understanding of their target groups’ challenges and needs (Digital and Population Data Services Agency, 2024; Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment, n.d.; The Danish Agency for Digital Government, Local Government Denmark & Danish Regions, 2024).

This study examines the role of NGOs in promoting digital inclusion for immigrant women in the Nordic countries, highlighting their access to the target group, their tailored support services, and their capacity to act as intermediaries between public authorities and immigrants. An overview of other support avenues for digital inclusion is provided in Section 2.3.

As noted above, different support pathways are available in the Nordic countries for immigrant women, immigrants in general, and other societal groups seeking assistance with digitalisation-related issues. In addition to civil society actors, these pathways include national introduction/integration programmes

Please note that this project has not reviewed the national integration or immigration policies of the Nordic countries. The information provided in the boxes in section 2.3 offers a brief and broad overview of the entities responsible for integration in each country. Since municipalities often oversee the implementation of integration programs, some examples are included to provide context.

often implemented locally by municipalities, covering all aspects of becoming a member of Nordic society. Libraries, welcome houses, and community services also typically offer digital support to anyone in need.

Below is a description of the range of support channels available in each Nordic country. Please note that this is not an exhaustive list of all possible support options.

The Danish Agency for International Recruitment and Integration is responsible for managing introduction programmes for immigrants in Denmark. SIRI operates under the Ministry of Immigration and Integration and oversees various aspects of the integration process, including language courses, cultural orientation, and employment support (The Danish Agency for International Recruitment and Integration, n.d.).

Many municipalities in Denmark include digital skills training as part of their introduction programmes for immigrants. These programmes aim to help immigrants integrate into Danish society by providing essential skills (see e.g. Aalborg Kommune, n.d.; Københavns Kommune, n.d.). There are also welcome houses, where immigrants can get help with digital tools and services (Welcome House, n.d.). Additionally, community services (e.g. Borgerservice) offer personalised help with digital solutions in the public sector. At borger.dk you can book an appointment to visit the municipality’s citizen service (Borger, n.d.). Some initiatives also aim at ensuring that all residents, including immigrants, can access and use public digital services, e.g., the Network for Digital Inclusion (The Danish Agency for Digital Government, 2024).

Local libraries in Denmark offer IT courses and free courses and workshops on digital skills, including basic computer use, internet navigation, and using digital services (see e.g. Aarhus Bibliotekerne, n.d; Københavns Biblioteker, n.d.).

There are also websites that provide information about life in Denmark, including guidance on, for example, digital services:

In today’s digitalised society, Finnish policies recognise digital inclusion as part of broader integration efforts (Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment, 2024). The Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment oversees integration policy, while the KEHA Centre monitors effectiveness and supports skills development. ELY Centres promote integration and good relations at the regional level (Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment, n.d.).

From 1 January 2025, with the implementation of Finland’s new Integration Act, municipalities are responsible for local integration efforts, including planning and developing integration services and fostering good relations between population groups, and public employment services (Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment, n.d.). Integration services strive to equip immigrants with the necessary skills and training (such as digital skills and literacy) to become active, fully integrated, and contributing members of Finnish society (City of Helsinki,2025).

The municipalities and cities offer integration services, such as International House (see e.g. Jyväskylä, n.d.) and special services for immigrants (see e.g. City of Helsinki, n.d.), aiming to support them in all aspects of integration into Finnish society, including digital inclusion. Local municipalities and cities across Finland also offer digital assistance through libraries, community centres, and social workers to help residents with online services and increase digital skills to promote integration (see e.g. City of Helsinki, 2021). Specific details are available on municipal websites or community service pages (see, for example, Helsinki libraries, which offer digital literacy training (Digitaalinen Helsinki, n.d.)).

The Digital and Population Data Services Agency gathers information about digital support, such as learning and support material, and opportunities for digital support, open for all, see: https://dvv.fi/en/digital-support

There are many places where people can visit and receive help with digital issues. Places that provide digital support across Finland can be found here (only available in Finnish): https://www.suomi.fi/kartta/palvelupaikat/sivusto-haku?lat=6959887&lon=463836&zoom=1&sl=false&q=digituki

The Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour is the primary authority on integration policy in Iceland, overseeing the main legal framework for integration. The Directorate of Labour, the Icelandic public employment service, funds essential services such as language training, counselling, and lifelong learning, all provided free of charge to the unemployed and refugees (OECD, 2024). The Directorate of Labour also helps immigrants to make their first steps in Iceland easier, for example by offering personalised advice, assistance with attending courses, and social education (Directorate of Labour, n.d.).

Municipalities provide a broader range of services to immigrants. Depending on the municipality, these can include Icelandic language and civic integration courses, cultural orientation, and information about the Icelandic society, including digital courses (OECD, 2024).

The Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour also manages the Multicultural Information Centre for Immigrants, which offers accessible advice, toolboxes on life in Iceland, guidance, and information on necessary services, rights, and obligations for immigrants (Multicultural Information Centre, n.d.).

The Education and Training Service Centre (ETSC) provides educational opportunities and supports adult education to enhance workforce competence (Fræðslumiðstöðin, n.d.). The 14 regional centres offer various programmes aimed at improving digital skills. The courses aim to enhance information and cultural literacy in Iceland by training participants to use computers and smart devices for gathering information, job searching, and responsible citizenship. It emphasises electronic citizenship, the Icelandic labour market, and effective communication, with instruction available in multiple languages (Framvegis, n.d.).

The Department of Integration within the Ministry of Labour and Social Inclusion oversees integration policies and programmes in Norway (Regjeringen, n.d.), while the Directorate of Integration and Diversity (IMDi) implements these policies and supports municipalities (IMDi, n.d.). Municipalities handle local integration programmes, including housing, education, and employment services. Key tools include the introduction programme and training in Norwegian language and social knowledge, which emphasise digital skills for immigrants (Norwegian Association of Local and Regional Authorities, n.d.a). Adult education for immigrants specifically highlights the importance of digital skills for navigating and participating in Norwegian society (Direktoratet for høyere utdanning og kompetanse, n.d.).

The Digihjelpen project, launched in 2017, aims to enhance digital inclusion by providing low-threshold guidance services in specific physical locations within municipalities (Norwegian Association of Local and Regional Authorities, n.d.b). Digihjelpen collects information about necessary digital tools and services in Norwegian society. It is open to all individuals facing challenges with digital tools and services, with some municipalities focusing specifically on immigrants (see e.g., Norwegian Association of Local and Regional Authorities, 2022). A list of Digihjelpen service locations can be found here: https://www.ks.no/fagomrader/digitalisering/digital-kompetanse/digihjelpen/eksempler-fra-kommunene/kart-over-veiledningstilbud-i-kommunene/

Many Norwegian municipalities offer low-threshold guidance service where citizens with little or no digital skills can receive help and guidance in using digital tools and digital services (Digdir, 2024). In Norway, public libraries also play a key role in the municipalities’ focus on digital skills, serving as low-threshold places where individuals with little or no digital skills can receive help and guidance (Bibliotekutvikling, 2023).

The Ministry of Employment is responsible for Sweden’s integration policies and for ensuring that immigrants can participate in society (Ministry of Employment, n.d.). The Swedish Public Employment Service manages the Introduction Programme (Etablerings­programmet), which helps immigrants find jobs, learn Swedish, and integrate into society (Swedish Public Employment Service, n.d.).

Municipalities play an important role in integration, as they are responsible for teaching language courses (i.e. SFI – Svenska för invandrare), social and civic orientation, and other adult education for immigrants (The Swedish Migration Agency, 2022). Municipalities and cities offer civic orientation activities, including digital skills courses, for people participating in the establishment programme, (see e.g. Göteborgs stad, n.d.). Integration centres, citizens’ offices and welcome houses are also available in several municipalities, usually offering digital support (see e.g. Stockholms stad, n.d.; Göteborgsregionen, 2022).

Many libraries in Sweden offer free digital literacy courses and workshops. These cover a wide range of topics, from using the internet and email to more advanced topics like online banking and e-government services (see e.g. Stockholms Stadsbibliotek, 2023).

There are also various avenues of support that are open to all members in society who struggle with digital tools or services. For example, Digitalhjälpen from the Swedish Post and Telecom Authority (PTS) is a webpage with guides for various digital services (Swedish Post and Telecom Authority, 2024b). The objective is to provide learning material to help digital beginners understand and use digital services and tools in their everyday lives (see https://www.pts.se/digital-inkludering/digitalhjalpen/).

Digidel is a network and knowledge bank promoting digital inclusion. DigidelCenters (run under municipal management) are physical learning spaces for both digitally experienced and novice users, open for all (Digidel, 2024). These centres usually have drop-in times and regular support opportunities where participants can learn about eID, and different e-services (see a list of DigidelCenters’ location here: https://digidel.se/digidelcenter/).