Previous knowledge about the experiences of artists and authors

This chapter summarises existing knowledge on threats, violence, and harassment directed at artists and authors in the Nordic countries. It primarily highlights previous studies on the experiences of artists and authors. Additionally, the chapter incorporates studies and reports on threats, violence, and harassment faced by other professional groups with significant public roles in democratic society, such as journalists, politicians, and researchers. The material referenced in this chapter mainly consists of reports, studies, and similar sources published by authorities, universities, professional organisations, or companies.

There are no comprehensive studies on the prevalence of threats, violence, and harassment against artists and authors across several Nordic countries. Existing knowledge on the issue mainly comes from a few reports produced by authorities or interest organisations. These reports typically focus on individual cultural and artistic fields and explore various forms of experiences. However, due to differing approaches, it is difficult to compare the findings across reports. Common themes in these studies include online or social media harassment, sexual harassment, and workplace discrimination. The primary research methods employed are interviews and surveys. This section outlines the key studies and reports identified, summarising the current state of knowledge in the Nordic countries.

In Denmark, there is relatively little previous knowledge about threats, violence and harassment directed at artists and authors. The studies that have limitations in data collection, which makes it difficult to draw clear conclusions about this group.

The trade union organisation Dansk Artist Forbund conducted a survey as part of a national campaign, #StopHadbeskeder. While the survey had a low response rate, which limits the ability to generalise the results, the responses suggest that threats and harassment, particularly online, are widespread issues. The report also indicates that these problems seem to be increasing, with around 40 per cent of respondents stating that the amount of threats and hate has risen over the past five years (Dansk Artist Forbund, 2022).

There are no other recent surveys or studies that analyse the proportion of artists or authors who have experienced threats, violence, or harassment. The Danish Ytringsfrihedskommissionen (Justitsministeriet, 2020a) noted in its second interim report that public figures, including artists and authors, are increasingly facing threats and harassment. However, the Commission has not been able to present any study examining the extent to which artists are affected.

There are, however, a few studies on inappropriate and transgressive behavior in the workplace. For example, Møhring Reestorff (2020) have studies the prevalence of inappropriate behavior, discrimination, and sexual harassment in the television, film, and performing arts industries (Analyse & Tal & KVINFO, 2022).

A few reports in Finland address themes relevant to this study. Each year, Cupore conducts an Arts and Culture Barometer survey targeting working artists in Finland (see Ruusuvirta et al., 2023). At the request of Kulturanalys Norden, Cupore has compiled findings on offensive behaviour and discrimination from the 2016, 2017, 2018, and 2022 surveys. However, these questions differ from those included in the current report’s surveys.

The first question asked whether artists had encountered inappropriate treatment or discrimination within their professional practice over the past 12 months. Here, 25 percent responded "yes," and 59 percent "no." Additionally, 16 percent chose "don’t know," which Cupore interprets as an indication that many respondents find it difficult to define what constitutes inappropriate treatment. Slightly more women (26 percent) than men (22 percent) reported such experiences. The findings further reveal that a greater proportion of artists than authors reported these experiences: 31 percent of performing artists, 27 percent of visual artists, and 17 percent of authors. Cupore also analysed the free-text responses, which primarily described psychological or verbal harassment, with some mentioning concrete threats and online harassment.

Additional reports on this topic in Finland mainly explore inappropriate behaviour or discrimination in workplace settings or among cultural sector colleagues more broadly (Anttila, 2019; Jaakkola, 2022), as well as within specific sectors such as the music industry (Inklusiiv, 2022; Seye, 2018), visual arts (Pulkkinen & Salonen, 2017), performing arts (Helavuori & Karvinen, 2019), and film industry (Paanetoja, 2018).

No published reports or studies have been identified that examine the prevalence of threats, violence, or harassment against artists or authors in Iceland. This also applies to Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Åland.

In Norway, several reports and studies address sexual harassment and inappropriate behaviour in the workplace, including in the theatre industry (Kleppe & Røysent, 2016), the book industry (Den Norske Forleggerforening, 2021), and the film, TV, performing arts, and music sectors (Bråten & Svalund, 2018).

A study by Slaatta and Okstad (2021), commissioned by the Fritt Ord Foundation, examined artists’ perspectives on freedom of expression in Norway. The report is partly based on a survey involving eleven organisations representing professionals in film, literature, performing arts, and visual arts, with 1 390 respondents in total. Although the survey does not focus specifically on the prevalence of threats, violence and harassments, it highlights that such experiences negatively impact artists' perceptions of freedom of expression. Forty-three per cent of respondents reported that experiencing threatening and hostile statements about art and artists online has adversely affected their freedom of expression over the past five years (Slaatta & Okstad, 2021, p. 48). The findings also reveal that a majority believe artists' freedom of expression has declined during this period. Factors identified as contributing to this decline include increased public discourse conflict and the spread of rumours on social media.

In 2016, Myndigheten för kulturanalys published a survey on threats, violence, and harassment targeting artists and authors in Sweden (Myndigheten för kulturanalys, 2016). The survey involved a questionnaire sent to 6,000 members of Sveriges Författarförbund and Konstnärernas Riksorganisation, with approximately 3,000 responses. Findings revealed that threats and harassment represent significant issues for artists and authors. Artists were more likely to encounter theft and vandalism, whereas authors faced a higher incidence of threats. Among artists, 25 per cent reported experiencing vandalism or theft at some point, with 7 per cent affected in the past year. For authors, 35 per cent reported experiencing threats and harassment, with 19 per cent encountering them in the past year. Additionally, a smaller subset of artists and authors reported experiencing frequent incidents. The survey results showed minimal differences between genders or age groups regarding exposure to threats, violence, or harassment. However, younger artists and authors reported more online threats than older ones. Those with a foreign background consistently reported higher rates of incidents than their Swedish counterparts.

A 2017 report by Konstnärsnämnden explored artists' working environments (Konstnärsnämnden, 2017). The survey targeted artists in visual arts and design, dance, film, music, literature, and theatre, including questions about harassment, bullying, sexual harassment, threats, and violence over the previous 12 months. A total of 1 895 artists responded. The report identified three primary contexts: conflicts with managers, conflicts with colleagues, and interactions with other individuals (e.g., the audience or general public). Results showed that sexual harassment was most common in collegial settings, while threats were more frequent in interactions with audiences or the public. Collective art forms (such as dance and theatre) were more affected compared to literature or visual arts, with 8 per cent of film artists and 7 per cent of theatre and dance artists experiencing threats in the past 12 months, compared to 4 per cent of visual artists.

Myndigheten för kulturanalys has also highlighted issues of threats, violence, and harassment affecting cultural institutions in two reports. For example, a survey of major museums indicated that one in three experienced vandalism, violence, or threats in 2015 (Myndigheten för kulturanalys, 2017). Additionally, a study from Dalarna University, in collaboration with the organisation Svensk Scenkonst, found that around 50 per cent of performing arts institutions had encountered hate and threats, with half of those affected multiple times over the previous five years (Florén, 2022, p. 8).

Several other professionals who, like artists and authors, work in the public sphere, experience threats, violence, and harassment. Reports and studies from the Nordic countries indicate that journalists, editors, and opinion leaders (Eriksson Almgren et al., 2017; Grimsmo & Heen, 2013; Idås, 2021; Löfgren Nilsson, 2017; Mølster, 2015; Pöyhtäri, 2013), elected politicians (Bjørgo et al., 2021; Brottsförebyggande rådet, Brå, 2023; Ipsos, 2019, 2023; Knuutila et al., 2019; Operate, 2018), researchers (Brax, 2022), and representatives of civil society (Landsrådet för Sveriges Ungdomsorganisationer, 2020; Myndigheten för ungdoms- och civilsamhällesfrågor, 2022) report experiences of threats, violence, and harassment.

However, these reports differ in both methodology and the types of experiences studied, which complicates comparisons and limits conclusions about differences between occupational groups. Nevertheless, existing studies and reports consistently show that threats, violence, and harassment pose serious issues for professionals working in the public sphere.

Experiencing threats, violence, or harassment can have numerous consequences for both the personal and professional lives of individuals. The report by Myndigheten för kulturanalys examining artists and authors found that many who had experienced threats, violence, or harassment required support, found the situation distressing, and took measures to enhance their safety (Myndigheten för kulturanalys, 2016). Violence was perceived as the most frightening and created the greatest need for assistance, whereas damage and theft were seen as less intimidating, as such incidents were more easily associated with property crime rather than targeted personal threats.

Björkenfeldt (2024) has investigated online threats and harassment against journalists. The thesis summarises previous research identifying a range of negative effects tied to experiences of threats and harassment. These include feelings of fear, anxiety, loneliness, burnout and insomnia (Björkenfeldt, 2024, p. 36).

Self-censorship is a mechanism that is frequently discussed in relation to the impact of threats, violence and harassment. This phenomenon suggests that professionals in public-facing roles withdraw from public discourse or avoid certain topics due to fears of retaliation. Self-censorship occurs when individuals consciously or unconsciously refrain from exercising their freedom of expression, without formal or legal restrictions, contrasting with state censorship, where governmental or legal institutions limit expression (Björkenfeldt, 2024, p. 61). A knowledge review by Brottsoffermyndigheten (Svensson et al., 2021, p.7) suggests that “there is growing evidence that professionals essential to democracy increasingly self-censor to avoid threats and hatred.” This conclusion connects to prior research showing rising instances of online threats and harassment, which correlate with increased tendencies toward self-censorship.

Few reports or studies have examined self-reported self-censorship among artists and authors. Myndigheten för kulturanalys study Hotad kultur provides evidence that self-censorship is present in this group: 14 per cent of responding artists and authors stated they had left or declined specific commissions, and a third reported reducing their public presence, such as through limited media visibility, as a result of experiences of threats, violence or harassment (Myndigheten för kulturanalys, 2016, p. 62). The study concluded that the risk of self-censorship is significant for artists and authors facing threats, violence, or harassment. The survey on artists’ working environments conducted by Konstnärsrådet (2017) indicated that 34 per cent of artists who had experienced threats, physical violence, or sexual harassment had ceased their artistic activity as a result (Konstnärsrådet, 2017, p. 48).

The Danish Ytringsfrihedskommissionen conducted a survey that included a sample of artists, commentators, journalists, and politicians (Justitsministeriet, 2020b). The findings showed that individuals in these professions are disproportionately active in public debates compared to the general population. However, a significant portion reported opting out of participation due to concerns about threats and hostility. The survey also found that approximately 40 per cent of artists refrained from expressing themselves on social media, despite wishing to do so (Ministry of Justice, 2020b, p. 66).

A few studies have examined journalists experiences and the connection between threats, violence, harassment, and self-censorship (see, for instance, Björkenfeldt, 2024; Löfgren Nilsson & Örnebring, 2016; Scaramuzzino, 2020). Collectively, these studies across the Nordic countries show that a substantial number of journalists affected by violence modify their coverage topics in response.

For an overview of previous research on threats and harassment and self-censorship among journalists in Norway and Sweden, see Bladini (2017) and Mølster (2015).

Björkenfeldt (2024) thesis presents a study among Swedish journalists that shows that a significant proportion practise self-censorship as a strategy to avoid threats and harassment (Björkenfeldt, 2024). One of the studies examines what influences the relationship between journalists' exposure on the internet and self-censorship. One driving factor is fear, which is linked to adverse health impacts. The decision to self-censor is also linked to other individual characteristics, such as individual resilience. Journalists who are more confident that employers or the legal system can offer protection and support are also less likely to engage in self-censorship. These findings can be related to other reports showing that self-employed or freelance artists, who lack employer support, are more vulnerable to threats and harassment (Konstnärsnämnden, 2017; Myndigheten för kulturanalys, 2016).

In summary, existing research suggests that experiences of threats, violence, and harassment can lead artists and authors to withdraw from public discourse and avoid certain topics or themes, as demonstrated by findings that many self-censor, reduce their public visibility, or even cease their artistic activities in response to such exposure.