Introduction

Despite well-developed welfare systems in the Nordic countries, poverty is a growing problem. More Nordic citizens face economic vulnerability today than ten years ago, and in several of the Nordic countries the gap between rich and poor has increased (Walker et al., 2022; Grunfelder et al., 2020; Egholt Søgaard et al., 2018). The growing number of children living in poverty (Salonen et al., 2021) is particularly serious, as is the fact that many pensioners, especially women (Andersson, 2023), are living in economic hardship.

It is therefore necessary to consider all stages of life, from childhood, through youth and adulthood and into retirement and old age, in order to more effectively tackle poverty. There is also a need to look beyond age, using intersectional analyses to understand how economic vulnerability affects the lives of different groups. Intersectional perspectives involve analysing how different forms of identity and oppression interact and influence each other (Crenshaw, 1989).

The Nordic countries have historically had relatively strong social safety nets, high living standards and relatively low levels of poverty compared to many other parts of the world. The Nordic region continues to have low levels of absolute poverty, meaning that the proportion of people living below the international poverty line is small (see, for example, SCB, 2023).

However, there are growing challenges related to relative poverty and economic inequality. The EU defines relative poverty as an after-tax income below 60 per cent of the country’s median income, and this is the most commonly used definition in the Nordic countries. The coronavirus pandemic and rising inflation have affected many people, with those already living on the economic margins being most vulnerable (Walker et al., 2022). Changes in the labour market, technological developments, an ageing population and migration have affected income distribution and working conditions in the region, resulting in challenges to the welfare model. The gender-segregated labour market, the wage gap between men and women and traditionally unequal care responsibilities mean it is important to address issues of economic inequality from gender perspectives with an intersectional approach (Young Håkansson et al., 2022).

Women are over-represented amongst those living in relative poverty and are generally at higher risk of poverty than men. There are a number of structural factors that benefit men economically over women. Overall, women’s average disposable income is significantly lower than men’s, about three-quarters of men’s. Disposable income is based on income from labour, benefits and capital minus taxes. On average, men own more capital than women. Women’s lower income is also explained by the fact that women are more likely to be unemployed or work part time or work low-wage jobs. Women also take more parental leave, study for longer and have higher levels of sick leave than men (Jämställdhetsmyndigheten, 2023; Bufdir, 2023a).

It is also important to highlight the relationship between violence and economic vulnerability. While far from everyone living in economic vulnerability is exposed to violence, it is present and has led to poverty for many in the most economically vulnerable groups. Among homeless children of single mothers, domestic violence is the most common cause of homelessness (Samzelius, 2017). Economic violence is an effective way to both control someone and expose them to economic vulnerability (Kaittila et al., 2022). Violence and threats of violence are also common methods for controlling vulnerable migrant workers in the widespread informal labour market in the Nordic countries (Scholtz et al., 2023).

Livslång ekonomi (Lifelong economics) provides free educational material on personal finance and law, developed by the Fredrika Bremer Association. The programme consists of films on personal finances, relationships, parenting and working life that viewers can watch on their own, with friends or as part of an association. The income gap between women and men has remained largely unchanged since 1995. Women’s lifetime earnings are affected by the fact that men do not take half of their parental leave, that women are more likely to work part time and that men have higher capital income than women. While these differences exist as a result of structural inequality and therefore require structural change, the Fredrika Bremer Association also wants to provide women with a toolkit to take control of their own lives.