PRODUCT-SPECIFIC NEED FOR PACKAGING

The need for packaging in fresh fruits and vegetables is not uniform across product categories but depends on intrinsic product characteristics and their susceptibility to deterioration mechanisms. As discussed previously, shelf life is primarily influenced by mechanical stress, moisture balance, respiration rate and, in some cases, ethylene-related ripening processes.

Products that combine high metabolic activity, high water loss and structural fragility are generally more sensitive to quality deterioration (AESAN, 2023, OVAM, 2024). For such products, packaging − plastic or other material − may contribute to extended shelf life, particularly when combined with appropriate storage conditions, including temperature control (OVAM, 2024).

Table 2 presents categories of fruits and vegetables, examples of representative products and their relative susceptibility to mechanical damage, water and turgidity loss, ethylene sensitivity and food safety–related deterioration (including microbial spoilage). The categorisation is based on the mechanisms described in the selected sources and aims to illustrate how vulnerability varies between product groups rather than to provide an exhaustive ranking.

Produce susceptible to mechanical damage

Susceptibility to mechanical damage varies between different types of fruits and vegetables. Products that are structurally fragile or easily bruised are therefore more likely to benefit from primary packaging that limits physical stress during distribution and retail display (AESAN, 2023, OVAM, 2024). AESAN (2023) provides a non-exhaustive list of produce that are susceptible to mechanical damage. Examples are soft fruits (e.g. strawberries, raspberries, grapes) and stone fruits (e.g. cherries, peaches, plums) − the latter especially at advanced stages of maturity. Leaves (e.g. leafy greens, fresh herbs) are also sensitive as they may suffer tearing and compression damage. Mushrooms are easily bruised and discoloured by handling and may sometimes benefit from primary packaging. Many of these products are also commonly consumed raw, which increases the relevance of preventing tissue damage that may facilitate growth of microbial pathogens. The need for packaging to reduce mechanical damage does not necessarily imply that plastic material is the only option.

Produce at risk to water loss

Products that are particularly sensitive to water loss typically share structural characteristics that promote transpiration: High surface-to-volume ratio, thin epidermal layers and limited protective cuticle increase the rate at which moisture is lost to the surrounding air. Leafy vegetables such as lettuce, spinach, as well as fresh herbs, are therefore especially vulnerable to rapid loss of turgidity when exposed to retail environments with suboptimal relative humidity (AESAN, 2023). Soft fruits also exhibit sensitivity to dehydration due to delicate tissues and limited structural barriers to moisture diffusion. In contrast, products with thicker skins, waxy surfaces or lower surface-area-to-volume ratios – such as many root vegetables and certain fruits – are generally less susceptible to rapid dehydration and may tolerate bulk presentation with limited impact on quality.

Climacteric and ethylene sensitive produce

Climacteric produce are characterised by continued ripening after harvest and significant ethylene production, which accelerates maturation and senescence (OVAM, 2024). Many fruits are climacteric, whereas vegetables are often non-climacteric. Typical examples of climacteric products include apples, bananas, mangoes, tomatoes and several stone fruits.

In contrast, ethylene-susceptible products are not necessarily climacteric themselves – although there is an overlap between the groups − but respond negatively (from shelf-life point of view) to external ethylene exposure (Saltveit, 1999). Some vegetables, in particular leafy vegetables, may develop yellowing or quality defects when exposed to ethylene in mixed retail displays (OVAM, 2024, Saltveit, 1999).

Table A3 in the appendix shows selected fruits and vegetables according to ethylene sensitivity and climacteric behaviour.

Food safety and microbial spoilage

From a food hygiene perspective primary packaging is most important to prevent virus transmission in later stages of the food chain and therefore commodities associated with viral outbreaks, i.e. berries, especially strawberries and raspberries, and leafy greens are the most relevant to pack from a hygienic perspective (Table 2). Food safety aspects were rarely mentioned as the most important reason for the need of single use packaging from respondents in OVAM (2024), but by a minority in relation to grapes, berries and cherry tomatoes. In AESAN (2023) red fruits (e.g. berries) and sprouted seeds were ranked highest from a microbial contamination risk with edible flowers (flower buds), aromatic (fresh) herbs, pome fruits (grapes, lychees, physalis) and leafy vegetables in the group thereafter. As previously stated, packaging can have an indirect effect on food safety and spoilage by reducing mechanical damage that favours microbial growth and mycotoxin production (Alegbeleye et al., 2022).

Table 2. Fruits and vegetables and their relative susceptibility to key deterioration mechanisms. Information in the table is compiled and adapted from AESAN (2023), EFSA (2023), MSU (2026), OVAM (2024), and Salveit (1999). The categorisation is based on the mechanisms described in the selected sources and aims to illustrate how the relative vulnerability − using a three-graded scale (high, medium, low) − varies between product groups rather than to provide an exhaustive ranking. There can be variations within a specific category and even product, due to different varieties, for example types of apples. See Table A1 in appendix for examples of products in different food categories

General food category	Specific food categories (for examples see Appendix )	Mechanical damage	Water loss	Ethylene sensitive	Microbial contamination
Soft fruits	Strawberries	High	High	No	High^a
	Raspberries	High	High	Yes	High^a
	Other berries	Medium	Medium	No	Medium
Citrus fruit		Low	Low	No	Low
Apples and related fruit			Medium	Yes	Low
Stone fruit		High	Medium	No (e.g. cherries) Yes (e.g. plums)	Medium
Tropical fruit		Varies	Varies	Often (varied group)	Low
Melons		Low	Low	Yes (e.g. cantaloupes) No (watermelon)	Medium^b
Vegetable fruits	Tomatoes	High	Medium	Yes	High^c
	Peppers and aubergines	Medium	Medium	Yes	Medium
	Gourds and squashes (cucumber)	Medium	Medium	Yes	Medium
	Fresh pods, legumes and grain	Medium	Medium	Yes (e.g. peas in pods) No (e.g. lima beans)	Low
Leaves	Leafy greens eaten raw as salads	High	High	Yes	High^a
	Fresh herbs	High	High	Yes	High
	Other leaves	High	High	Yes	Medium
Root and tuberous vegetables	Carrots	Low	Low	Yes	Medium
	Potatoes	Medium	Low	Yes	Low
	Other root and tuberous vegetables	Medium	High	Yes (e.g. sweet potatoes) No (e.g. radish)	Low
Bulb and stem vegetables		Medium	Medium	Yes (e.g. asparagus, celery, leek) No (e.g. green onions, onions)	Medium
Flowers and flower buds		High	High	Yes (e.g. broccoli) No (e.g. cauliflower)	Medium
Sprouted seeds		High	High	Yes	High
Fungi (mushrooms and yeasts)		High	High	No	Medium^d

^a Associated with viral outbreaks. ^b Outbreaks of listeriosis and salmonellosis have been associated with melons, however from cut fruits. ^c Associated with several salmonellosis outbreaks. ^d Associated with sporadic listeriosis outbreaks.

Answers to specific questions

1. What is the purpose of having packaging on fruits and vegetables?

There are four main purposes of having packaging on fruits and vegetables:

Protection of physical integrity

Packaging protects produce against mechanical damage during transport, retail display and handling.

Protection against quality deterioration

Packaging helps to slow the biological and chemical processes that diminish quality and accelerate product ageing. By regulating moisture and gas exchange, it influences water loss, respiration, ethylene production, ripening and senescence. In doing so, it can extend shelf life, preserve appearance and contribute to the reduction of food waste.

Ease of use

Packaging facilitates handling, transport, portioning and retail display. It enables grouping of units into manageable sales formats, supports weighing of loose produce, and can offer convenience features such as easy opening and resealing.

Communication

Packaging enables product identification and traceability and provides mandatory and voluntary information. It also supports differentiation between products, such as branding or separating organic certification from conventional produce.

2. What can happen to fruits and vegetables if they are not packaged in plastic or other packaging?

Many fruits and vegetables do not require packaging, but for those that are benefited by packaging, the following may happen:

Increased mechanical damage

Greater risk of bruising, compression, abrasion and cuts during transport and handling. Damage can lead to faster deterioration and increased microbial growth.

Greater water loss

Direct exposure to air may cause dehydration, wilting and shrivelling, particularly in leafy vegetables, fresh herbs and berries.

Faster ripening and senescence

The absence of a protective microenvironment may result in faster respiration and greater exposure to ethylene, especially in climacteric fruits.

Increased light exposure

May lead to discolouration and quality changes in certain products.

Food safety effects

Tissue damage or over-ripening may favour the growth of bacteria, moulds and other fungi.

3. Are there any fruit and vegetable products for which plastic packaging or other packaging is extra important or necessary?

The need for packaging depends on product characteristics and susceptibility to deterioration. Certain fruits and vegetables are described as more likely to benefit from, or have a stronger need for, primary packaging. Table 2 and tables A2 and A3 list in more detail different produce and their properties that may motivate the use of packaging, but in general terms the following applies:

Products susceptible to mechanical damage

Structurally fragile or easily bruised products are more likely to benefit from packaging that limits physical stress during distribution and retail display. Examples include soft fruits (e.g. strawberries, raspberries and grapes), stone fruits (e.g. cherries, peaches and plums − particularly at advanced maturity), leafy greens, fresh herbs and mushrooms.

Products susceptible to water loss

Produce with high surface-to-volume ratio, thin epidermis and limited protective cuticle is particularly vulnerable to dehydration and loss of turgidity in retail environments. These include leafy vegetables (e.g. lettuce, spinach), fresh herbs and soft fruits. Packaging can help maintain a higher relative humidity around these products and reduce wilting and shrivelling

Products susceptible to ethylene

Climacteric fruits continue to ripen after harvest and produce significant amounts of ethylene. Packaging of some climacteric fruits may help protect nearby ethylene sensitive produce or, in some cases, absorb ethylene to delay ripening. Ethylene-sensitive vegetables, particularly leafy vegetables, may develop quality defects such as yellowing when exposed to ethylene in mixed retail displays. Packaging, temperature control (low temperature slows down respiration and ethylene production) or physical separation of different produce can therefore be relevant for these products.

4. What is the effect of produce bags used by consumers when purchasing fruits and vegetables that are sold loose

No sources were found that directly assess the effect of produce bags. The following assessment is therefore based on general principles described in the literature. Plastic produce bags primarily serve a practical function. They facilitate weighing, handling and transport of loose produce and allow products to be grouped at the point of sale. These bags are typically thin and are not designed to provide mechanical protection. Indirect effects may occur. By grouping items, carrier bags may reduce repeated handling and thereby limit mechanical damage to some extent.

5. Are there any microbiological risks of not having packaging on fruits and vegetables?

Most microbial contaminations occur before primary packaging and conventional non-modified packaging does not eliminate intrinsic microbiological risks, and pathogen growth rates are not necessarily lower in packaged products. Reducing contamination of enteric viruses in later stages of the food chain can have an impact from a microbiological risk perspective; the highest prioritised products being soft fruits (berries), mainly raspberries and strawberries. Secondly, leafy greens, sprouted seeds, fresh herbs and (cherry) tomatoes could be considered.