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This publication is also available online in a web-accessible version at https://pub.norden.org/temanord2022-566.
This report has been prepared by the Norwegian Institute for Water Research. The project is funded by the Norwegian Ministry of Climate and Environment and the Nordic Council of Ministers.
The project team would like to thank the members of the Advisory Committee for their participation in three sessions April 4th, June 21st/23rd and November 3rd, 2022, and their contributions through written comments and reviews of the report:
Xavier Ferry (Agricultural Plastics Europe), Hossein Shahbaz (Basel and Stockholm Conventions Regional Center, Tehran), David Azoulay (Centre for International Environmental Law), Christina Dixon (Environmental Investigation Agency), Paulo Da Silva Lemos (European Commission Directorate-General for Environment), Julia Talvitie (The Finnish Environment Institute), Lev Neretin (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO), Richard Thompson (FAO), Cristian Brito Martinez (Government of Chile), Erik Okuko (Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute), Go Kobayashi (Ministry of the Environment, Japan), Trisia Farrelly (Massey University), Anne Christine Parborg Meaas (Norwegian Environment Agency), Kine Martinsen (Norwegian Environment Agency), Helen Klint (Swedish Environment Protection Agency), Anne-Gaëlle Collot (Plastics Europe), Tony Talouli (The Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme), Satish Sinha (Toxics Link), Heidi Savalli (United Nations Environment Programme), Zaynab Sadan (World Wide Fund for Nature), Giulia Carcasci (FAO).
As well as input and comments from Esther Kentin (Leiden University) and Alexander Turra (Universidade de São Paulo).
AMAP | Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme |
ASEAN | Association of Southeast Asian Nations |
BAT | Best Available Technique |
BEP | Best Environmental Practice |
CEN | European Committee for Standardization |
ECHA | European Chemicals Agency |
EFSA | European Food Safety Authority |
EPS/XPS | Expanded and extruded polystyrene |
ESM | Environmentally Sound Management |
EU | European Union |
FAO | Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |
GESAMP | Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection |
HELCOM | The Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission |
ICES | International Council for the Exploration of the Sea |
IMO | International Maritime Organization |
INC | Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee |
ISO | International Organization for Standardization |
MARPOL | The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships |
MSFD | EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive |
NOWPAP | Northwest Pacific Action Plan |
NOAA | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |
OCS | Operation Clean Sweep |
OECD | Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |
OSPAR | The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic |
PAME | Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment Working Group |
PIC | Prior Informed Consent |
POP | Persistent Organic Pollutant |
RAC | EU Committee for Risk Assessment |
REACH | Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals |
SAPEA | Science Advice for Policy by European Academies |
SDG | Sustainable Development Goals |
SEAC | EU Committee for Socio-economic Analysis |
UN | United Nations |
UNEA | United Nations Environment Assembly |
UNEP | United Nations Environment Programme |
WHO | World Health Organization |
WWTP | Wastewater treatment plant |
ZPAP | Zero Pollution Action Plan |
In March 2022, the second session of the 5th United Nations Environment Assembly unanimously adopted Resolution 14. End Plastic Pollution: towards an international legally binding instrument[1]UNEP/EA.5/Res.14. The resolution marked the start of a process to negotiate a legally binding international agreement to end plastic pollution. The preamble to the resolution highlights that “plastic pollution includes microplastics”, hence the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee will need to consider how to address both macroplastic and microplastic pollution in a global agreement.
The Nordic Report on Addressing Microplastics in a Global Agreement provides a reference for how microplastics may be addressed under a global agreement on plastic pollution, and what considerations should be taken to that end. The report elaborates on how microplastics are currently regulated and managed, as well as the most appropriate measures and modalities to address microplastics. It is intended to inform and inspire stakeholders and policymakers, including negotiators and delegates in the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC), to consider microplastics holistically.
To do so, the report first introduces key concepts, principles and terminology to establish a framework for addressing microplastics in a global agreement, before summarising the current knowledge base and the challenges that remain for the science-policy interface on microplastic pollution. It provides an analysis of existing measures on microplastics, focusing on effectiveness, and elaborates on how different sources and pathways may require different measures. A separate chapter is dedicated to examining lessons learnt from existing multilateral environmental agreements under the chemicals and waste cluster (e.g. the Stockholm, Rotterdam, Basel and Minamata Conventions), before proposing constellations of measures and supporting mechanisms to address microplastic pollution in the global agreement.
Microplastics (see Box 1) are widely present in different environmental compartments, including biota, air, water, and sediments, including the most remote regions of the world. Once released into the environment, microplastics are very difficult to fully remove due to their small size. Their accumulation in the environment poses a growing though still not quantified risk to biota, human and environmental health as concentrations will continue to increase without action. Recent studies have reported on microplastics in human lungs and bloodstreams, driving concerns over the long-term health effects of exposure. The transboundary nature of microplastic pollution, both with regards to environmental transport across national borders (by air, through sediments and in water), as well as human transport through globalized production and trade systems, including waste shipments, necessitate international measures under a global agreement to end plastic pollution.
Whether intentionally produced and used, or arising from the degradation of plastic materials, microplastic pollution is a symptom of current unsustainable production and consumption patterns. All plastic products shed microplastics, at rates determined by chemical composition and integrity, and exposure to degradative forces. While releases can be reduced with appropriate measures, it is impossible to prevent all microplastic releases from plastic products. Yet, different control measures may significantly reduce the rates of release by phasing out non-essential uses of microplastics, reducing and phasing out the production and use of non-essential plastic products, and targeting the production, safe design, use and waste management of essential and non-substitutable plastic products, microplastics and plastic materials.
Microplastics can be defined as*:
Plastic particles smaller than 5 millimetres, including nanoplastics**.
Microplastics are commonly sub-categorized into four broad categories:
**Nanoplastics are microplastics smaller than 1/10 000 millimetre.
An ambitious global agreement should therefore address the dominant sources of microplastic pollution, including microplastics released from the degradation of plastic products, to minimize emissions. Microplastics cannot be regulated in a vacuum, and as all plastic products and materials can degrade into microplastics unless immobilised, measures to reduce plastic production and subsequent pollution is an important starting point.
There has been substantial research addressing the fate and effects of microplastics. Enough evidence is available to establish key sources and pathways for release of microplastics to the environment and thus the development of targeted measures. Though, there may be important sources of microplastics pollution that are not recognised due to limitations in methods, protocols, and scales of monitoring. The human and environmental risks associated with microplastics are still being investigated. Some impacts, including both physical and chemical effects, have been observed in scientific studies, but vary depending on the characteristics of the microplastics, organisms (including humans) and environments in question. Further, microplastics represent a diverse suite of contaminants and there is insufficient research addressing the various particle typologies (sizes, shapes, chemical compositions, e.g. polymer types and additives) that can be included under the umbrella term of microplastics.
In identifying measures to limit microplastic pollution under a global agreement, central tenets of international environmental law such as prevention, the precautionary principle, and the polluter pays principle should lie at the foundation. It has been argued that the accumulation of microplastic in the environment, and the complexities in assessing data on risk, makes microplastics non-threshold contaminants for risk assessment purposes. These are contaminants for which no safe threshold for emissions can be identified. The approach is based on the rationale that even if a safe threshold exists, it will inevitably be surpassed because of the continued accumulation and persistence of microplastics in the environment. This underlines the necessity of a precautionary approach to reduce the emissions of microplastics.
Presently, there are no legally binding measures on the global level addressing microplastics. On the national and regional level there are few regulatory measures addressing microplastics beyond microbeads in rinse-off cosmetics. Yet, in recent years there has been a step-change in the number and breadth of measures being proposed or introduced. The EU has adopted a quantitative reduction target for microplastic pollution, aiming to cut emissions by 30% by 2030 compared to 2016 levels, and is developing an intricate web of measures to address microplastics across the plastic product lifecycle. Furthermore, research efforts and commitments to formulate policies are increasingly moving from overall efforts to monitor microplastics in the environment, to quantifying key sources and pathways, and identify appropriate control measures.
Existing policies also reflect different capabilities between countries in assessing and addressing microplastics pollution. Overall, the present review shows that lower- and middle-income countries have introduced fewer policies specifically targeting microplastics, while some higher income countries are developing upstream measures addressing intentionally added microplastics and microplastics pollution stemming from pellet losses, textiles, road wear and agricultural plastics. It is important to note that there are differences in the primary sources of microplastics to the environment according to climate, geography, key industries and consumer behaviours, which will necessitate different measures according to context. National action plans have been suggested as a format under the treaty to capture such local variability.
Drawing on the four categories of microplastics (Box 1), and experience from other environmental treaties, there is a strong incentive for differentiating between intentional and unintentional sources of release, which trigger different control measures. Measures to control ‘plastic pellets, flakes and powders’ should focus on setting standards and requirements for transport, storage, trade and stockpile management. Common best available techniques and best environmental practices (BAT/BEP) standards and guidance, alongside emission limit values from industrial facilities, may be established to prevent emissions from the production of these materials.
The second category of intentional use, ‘intentionally added primary microplastics’, is a category that can be controlled and potentially eliminated. Provided that less harmful alternatives are accessible and economically feasible, the production, consumption, and trade of these microplastics should be banned or restricted.
When it comes to unintentional sources of microplastics, ‘use-phase secondary microplastics’, are generated during use due to wear and tear of products containing plastic materials. Establishing bans or restrictions on products with the greatest risk of generating microplastics; improving product design through design criteria and requirements; restrictions on use and application of certain materials; labelling requirements; voluntary codes of conduct; BAT/BEP on industrial applications and improved wastewater treatment systems are relevant measures to control this category of microplastics.
The last category, ‘degradation-based secondary microplastics’ is also an unintentional source category, that would require somewhat different control measures. Prevention, reduction, safe circularity and improved management of plastic waste are by far the most important measures to control this source. Improved product design and BAT/BEP for mechanical recycling activities could also contribute to reduce emissions of this category of microplastics.
In line with other comparable environmental treaties, the new plastic treaty should be a dynamic and flexible instrument, opening for the addition of new polymers, products, and/or processes to be regulated, should emerging science disclose the need for further regulation due to the scales of releases or impacts of microplastics pollution. Considering the scale of the plastic market and the high degree of product innovation, a scientific review committee, evaluating the listing of new polymers, additives, products or processes could be warranted. Establishing such a committee would increase credibility and would require provide fair representation from all regions.
In conclusion, we make the following recommendations based on the findings of the Nordic Report Addressing Microplastics under a Global Agreement on Plastic Pollution.
Plastic pellets, flakes and powders can be regulated through global measures across the value chain to prevent losses.
Intentionally added primary microplastics can be addressed through an essential use approach.
A dedicated ad-hoc expert group should be established to identify key global sources of intentionally added primary microplastics; develop criteria for restrictions; and create a shortlist of essential and non-essential uses of these microplastics to be provided to the INC. The expert group could also identify where alternative materials, designs and models need to be developed.
Use-phase secondary microplastics could be addressed through measures addressing reduction, product design, use and maintenance.
An agreement should include commitments to develop global product standards or design criteria for dominant sources, hotspots and pathways of use-phase secondary microplastics with minimum requirements which must be met to prevent releases from abrasion and other forms of fragmentation.
Degradation-based secondary microplastics
An agreement must include measures to reduce secondary microplastic emissions from macroplastics, including measures to prevent and reduce production of unnecessary and problematic plastic products; improve durability for safe reuse, recycling, repair, and remanufacture and improved plastics waste management for all sectors, including the informal sector.
Microplastic pollution differs from macroplastic pollution in many ways. Throughout the INC process, specific considerations related to microplastics pollution will need to be incorporated. This includes the design of national action plans, establishing source inventories, efforts under scientific and technical cooperation and coordination, capacity building, and technical and financial support for monitoring and reporting, especially for less developed countries.
In March 2022, the second session of the 5th United Nations Environment Assembly unanimously adopted Resolution 14. End Plastic Pollution: towards an international legally binding instrument[1]UNEP/EA.5/Res.14. (hereafter referred to as the resolution). The resolution marked the start of a process to negotiate a legally binding international agreement to end plastic pollution. The preamble to the resolution highlights that “plastic pollution includes microplastics”. Hence, the intergovernmental negotiating committee (INC) will also have to consider how best to address microplastics alongside macroplastics and their chemical constituents in the design of a global agreement.
Microplastics can be defined as*:
Plastic particles smaller than 5 millimetres, including nanoplastics**.
Microplastics are commonly sub-categorized into four broad categories:
**Nanoplastics are microplastics smaller than 1/10 000 millimetre.
Microplastics are either intentionally produced or result from the degradation and weathering of larger plastic pieces. Once in the environment, microplastics are highly persistent, practically impossible to fully clean up and can degrade into increasingly small fractions[1]GESAMP 2015. Annual emissions of microplastics are estimated to exceed 3 million tonnes globally[2]UNEP 2018a. Microplastics are found on all continents and in the most remote regions of the world[3]Aves et al. 2022; Napper et al. 2020; Peng et al. 2018. Microplastics are transported by natural processes such as winds, rivers and ocean currents, making microplastic pollution a transboundary issue requiring global coordination[4]Evangeliou et al. 2020.
The accumulation and persistence of microplastics in the environment warrants concern around the potential environmental and human health impacts associated with such pollution[5]Andrady 2017. Most early research on impacts focused on marine animals or ecotoxicology studies on model organisms. Although, recently, microplastics have been reported in human lungs, bloodstreams, breastmilk and embryos[6]Jenner, Rotchell, et al. 2022; Leslie et al. 2022; Ragusa et al. 2021; 2022. The risks associated with microplastics are not solely due to their physical presence (physical toxicity) but are linked to the uncertain impacts of the chemicals associated with plastics (chemical toxicity). This includes chemicals incorporated into plastics during production as well as environmental contaminants, including organic chemicals and heavy metals which sorb to plastics surfaces once in the natural environment[7]Rochman 2015; Rodrigues et al. 2019. Such chemicals, e.g. brominated flame retardants, bisphenol A and polychlorinated biphenyls, are known to have impacts on microbial communities and human health, including endocrine disruption, genotoxicity, carcinogenicity and reproductive toxicity[8]SAPEA 2019.
While the mechanisms for releasing contaminants from microplastics and their impacts on human health are less well understood[9]Alidoust et al. 2021; Koelmans et al. 2022; Rodrigues et al. 2019, recent evidence suggests that ingestion and digestion of microplastics may pose a risk to human health due to the release and exposure to plastic associated chemicals[10] López-Vázquez et al. 2022. The diversity of microplastics in terms of their chemical makeup (polymers and additives), shapes, and sizes makes comprehensive risk- and impact assessments challenging[11]Amy L. Lusher et al. 2020; Mitrano & Wohlleben 2020; Rochman et al. 2019; Thornton Hampton et al. 2022. Still, there is increasing evidence for the potential harmful impacts of microplastics on biota and human health[12]Gomes et al. 2022; Persson et al. 2022; Wardman et al. 2021. A comprehensive review from 2019 found that while present levels of micro- and nanoplastics in the environment do not yet comprise a widespread risk to humans or the environment, ‘pockets’ of risk exist where there are high exposure levels to microplastics[13]SAPEA 2019. As microplastics accumulate and persist in the environment, the number and scales of such pockets can be assumed to increase indefinitely if appropriate measures to prevent microplastic pollution throughout the plastic lifecycle are lacking.
The persistence, risk and transboundary nature of microplastic pollution thus warrants action to prevent and reduce microplastic pollution. The globalised and transboundary nature of plastic production, supply chains and waste trade makes it challenging for individual nations to effectively implement measures to address microplastic pollution. Furthermore, piecemeal legislation is a significant barrier for equitable competition and competitiveness between and within markets. Preventive and mitigating measures for microplastic pollution require global coordination for the benefit of individual states as well as for industry actors currently facing a rapidly expanding regulatory environment. A global approach is necessary to ensure harmonised and effective legislation and a level playing field for businesses and industry as the ultimate sources and producers of the products that result in microplastic pollution.
This report provides a reference for how microplastics may be addressed under a global agreement on plastic pollution, and what considerations should be taken to that end. In the coming chapters, we elaborate on how microplastics are currently regulated and managed, as well as the most appropriate measures and modalities to address microplastics. We intend to inform and inspire stakeholders and policymakers, including negotiators and delegates in the INC, to consider microplastics holistically in accordance with the guidance provided by the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) in Resolution 5/14.
To do so, we first introduce key concepts, principles and terminology to establish a framework for addressing microplastics in a global agreement in Chapter 2, before we summarise the current knowledge base and the challenges that remain for the science-policy interface on microplastic pollution in Chapter 3. In Chapter 4, we analyse existing measures on microplastics, focusing on effectiveness, and elaborate on how different sources and pathways may require different measures. Chapter 5 takes a step back to examine lessons learnt from existing multilateral environmental agreements under the chemicals and waste cluster, before proposing measures and supporting mechanisms to address microplastic pollution in the global agreement in Chapter 6.
In developing this report, we prioritised engaging with diverse stakeholders from all continents and representing policymakers, industry actors and civil society to ensure a holistic consideration of microplastic pollution, including relevant sources and control measures. As emphasised in the resolution, the agreement will require recognition of the various experiences with plastic pollution.
More specifically, this report is based on a review of the current policies and measures to address microplastics at the global, regional and national level. As the regulatory landscape is rapidly expanding, we have prioritised policies specifically targeting microplastics, though there are policies primarily related to waste and wastewater management, product design, etc. which may indirectly be relevant for microplastics. Due to resource constraints, we have primarily examined national-level policies available in English, though we have endeavoured to try to capture a representative overview.
Drawing on the review, we identified questions which were put up for consideration to stakeholders engaged in the advisory committee of the report. Through three rounds of consultations, the measures proposed are thought to combine the necessary specificity to enable global coordination, while ensuring flexibility to be appropriate for implementation at the national and local level.
Acute plastic pollution: Pollution events where a large amount of plastics (either macro- or microplastics) are released into the environment from a single source.
Degradation-based secondary microplastic: Microplastics generated from the degradation and weathering of plastic wastes and litter.
Diffuse pollution: Pollution which is challenging to attribute to a specific source as the pollution is caused by multiple emissions of pollutants over time and space.
Harmonisation: Translation and comparability of data collected in different contexts.
Hazardous chemicals: Hazardous chemicals are substances with hazardous properties that may cause significant adverse impacts on human health and the environment; such as, but not limited to, carcinogens, mutagens and chemicals hazardous to reproduction, persistent bio-accumulative and toxic substances, endocrine-disrupting chemicals and chemicals with neurodevelopmental effects.
Intergovernmental negotiating committee (INC): An ad hoc forum for the purpose of negotiating an international legal instrument, such as a framework convention.
Microbead: Microplastics used in products as an abrasive, i.e., to exfoliate, polish or clean.
Microfiber: Microfibers are solid, polymeric, fibrous materials: to which chemical additives or other substances may have been added, and which have at least two dimensions that are less than or equal to 5 mm, length to width and length to height aspect ratios of greater than 3, and a length of less than or equal to 15 mm. Fibers that are derived in nature that have not been chemically modified (other than by hydrolysis) are excluded[1] US EPA 2022.
Microplastics: Plastic particles typically smaller than 5 millimetres, including nanoplastics (see chapter 2).
Nanoplastics: Plastics within the nanometre size range. The size threshold associated with nanoplastics is not yet set and both 100 and 1000 nm are used.
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs): Organic chemical substances that once released into the environment remain intact for exceptionally long periods of time (many years); become widely distributed throughout the environment as a result of natural processes involving soil, water and, most notably, air; accumulate in the living organisms including humans, and are found at higher concentrations at higher levels in the food chain; and are toxic to both humans and wildlife[2] UNEP n.d..
Polymer: Refers to a molecule of high molecular weight consisting of a repetitive sequence of a large number of simple molecules called monomers, which may or may not be the same[3]UNEP 2021a.
Plastic: Defined as synthetic organic polymers with thermo-plastics or thermo-set properties (synthesized from hydrocarbon or biomass raw materials), elastomers (e.g. butyl rubber), material fibres, monofilament lines, coatings and ropes[4]GESAMP 2019.
Plastic dust: Fine particulate matter with irregular form and size, produced when plastics are manufactured, handled, conveyed, machined or processed[5] OSPAR Commission 2021.
Plastic flakes: Small flat shaped matter with regular or irregular form that serves as feedstock in plastic product manufacturing operations or plastic that has been shredded. Plastic flakes can be manufactured or generated though the agglomeration of plastic dust or powder when plastics are processed[6] OSPAR Commission 2021.
Plastic pellets: Mass of pre-formed moulding material, having relatively uniform dimensions used as feedstock in plastic product manufacturing operations[7] OSPAR Commission 2021.
Plastic powders: Fine particulate matter that serves as a feedstock in plastic product manufacturing operations[8] OSPAR Commission 2021.
Point-source pollution: A single identifiable source of pollution.
Primary microplastic: Microplastics purposefully designed to be small in size for their application and use, such as in cosmetics or abrasive scrubbers.
Use-phase secondary microplastic: Microplastics generated during intended product use. Examples include microfibres from synthetic textiles, polymers from tyre, road and brake wear and the degradation of paints.
Presently, there is no single, universally agreed definition of microplastics. ‘Microplastics’ is an umbrella term commonly used to refer to all plastic particles smaller than 5 mm in size. This seemingly simple definition leaves much up for interpretation. Different definitions have been established for use in different contexts (see Table 1). Some of the questions that may arise relate to the proportion of plastic polymers in a given fragment or particle; the size and shape; whether biodegradable plastics undergoing degradation are included (see Box 3); and the state of the polymer; as outlined in Figure 1. There is increasing consolidation and agreement around some of these questions, and ongoing research is looking into harmonising definitions and monitoring protocols[1]The EU Horizon 2020 project EUROqCHARM (Grant Number: 101003805) aims to develop optimised, validated and harmonised methods for monitoring and assessment of plastics, including microplastics, in the environment, as well as blueprints for standards and recommendations for policy and legislation. See euroqcharm.eu for more.. Establishing coherence in defining microplastics and the implications of different definitions will be important input to the INC process.
Figure 1. Examples of factors that could be considered in defining microplastics.
The definition of microplastics and its level of detail has implications on a legal, policy and scientific level (see Box 4). Natural scientists often require a highly specific definition of microplastics, which outlines specific shapes, sizes, states, etc. to allow for effective analyses and harmonisation of data. A policymaker, on the other hand, requires a definition that can be applied in a legal context for establishing implementable governance and policy frameworks to guide measures. This typically necessitates different levels of specificity, and a scientifically accurate definition may not be applicable in a legal context. It should therefore be noted that while the specific definitions used for the term ‘microplastics’ may vary between fields, this does not necessarily represent an obstacle to progress both within and across these fields.
Biodegradable plastics are plastic materials that are capable of being biodegraded. Biodegradation refers to the process whereby the plastic is completely or partially converted to water, carbon dioxide or methane, energy, and/or new biomass by microorganisms such as bacteria or fungi[1]UNEP 2015. Biodegradable plastic materials may be partially or completely composed of plastic polymer: some materials contain a blend of a biodegradable plastic and other biodegradable materials such as natural polymers (e.g. starch). Examples of biodegradable plastics include poly-3-hydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), polycaprolactone (PCL), and polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT). Biodegradable plastics are certified for biodegradability in different environments or conditions based on a series of standards or test methods; for example, ISO 14851:2019 for aqueous media and ISO 17556:2019 for soils. These set requirements for the extent of biodegradation, such as 90% biodegradation within 24 months.
Compostable plastics are plastic materials that are capable of being biodegraded under specific conditions. These refer to elevated temperatures and a controlled environment that is typically achieved during industrial composting[2]UNEP 2015. These conditions may not necessarily include those available in home composting settings[3] SAPEA 2020. An example of a compostable plastic is polylactic acid (PLA). Standards for compostability set requirements for biodegradation (e.g. 90% of the organic material is converted to carbon dioxide within 6 months) and disintegration (e.g. ≤10% of the original mass is left as residue on 2 mm sieve after 3 months of composting); for example, ISO 17088:2021 or ASTM D6400-21.
In addition to these, the terms bio-based plastics and bioplastics are increasingly used. This has the potential to cause some confusion or misinterpretation of the material properties of a plastic[4] SAPEA 2020. Bio-based plastics are plastic materials that are produced from a feedstock that is partially or completed composed of biomass, as opposed to fossil. Some bio-based plastics may be biodegradable, such as polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), whilst others are not, even if their original starting material was biodegradable[5]Albertsson & Hakkarainen 2017. Non-biodegradable bio-based plastics are sometimes labelled as “bio”, such as bioPE referring to bio-based polyethylene[6]SAPEA 2020. Bioplastic is a term that can be used to describe all of the materials addressed above: biodegradable plastics produced from a feedstock of either biomass or fossil or bio-based plastics which may or may not be biodegradable. Bioplastic, therefore, does not infer biodegradability.
The ISO definition (Table 1) limits microplastics to more limited size boundaries (1 mm – 1 µm) than what is common in the policy literature (e.g. RAC/SEAC, NOAA). From the policy perspective, an upper bound of 1 mm may drive a shift to make intentionally added primary microplastics (which are commonly subject to restrictions) to be larger than 1 mm to avoid regulations, rather than the desired phase-out of such materials. Similarly, setting a lower size bound of 1 µm may push producers to shrink materials below the size boundary to avoid regulation. While an argument for a lower size limit has been that it is difficult to adequately detect such small particles, setting a lower limit assumes that future innovation and improvement in detection technologies will not solve this problem, while simultaneously creating a loophole from regulation[1]Gigault et al. 2018. A definition could therefore be framed without a lower size boundary, and rather include exemptions to relevant measures and regulations for materials below a size bound. The exemptions may then be amended with scientific and technological progress.
A global agreement will need to agree on a common definition of microplastics. However, the definition needs to both reflect scientific needs for adequate monitoring and reporting on microplastics in the environment, as well as policy needs with regards to the feasibility of regulation and ensuring compliance. A key point then is to consider whether the inclusion and exclusion of materials (e.g. water-soluble polymers), sizes or sources under the definition of microplastics is conducive to effective regulation or if some materials should be considered singular categories subject to targeted measures.
A way to tackle the issue of heterogeneity of microplastics could be to use several inclusion criteria under the definition of microplastics, allowing for the term to cover particles with different characteristics.
A potential definition may then be formulated as:
Particles containing synthetic polymers (including biodegradable and water-soluble polymers) that are either contained within or building a continuous surface coating on the particles, where:
Excluding polymers that occur naturally and are not chemically modified substances.
Table 1. Overview of commonly used definitions of microplastics, and relevant inclusions/exclusions.
Body (year) | Definition of microplastics | Exclusions / Inclusions |
GESAMP (2015) | Particles in the size range 1 nm to <5 mm. | The follow-up report* includes resin beads, microbeads from personal care products, textile fibres and tyre dust under the definition. |
EU Committee for Risk Assessment (RAC) and EU Committee for Socio-economic Analysis (SEAC)** | ‘Microplastic’ means particles containing solid polymer, to which additives or other substances may have been added, and where ≥ 1% w/w of particles have (i) all dimensions 0.1 µm ≤ x ≤ 5 mm, or (ii), a length of 0.3 µm ≤ x ≤ 15 mm and length to diameter ratio of >3. | The proposed regulation under the EU (discussed in chapter 4), includes several exemptions from the regulation, rather than including these in the definition. |
NOAA (2021)*** | Microplastics are small plastic pieces or fibers that are smaller than 5 mm in size | |
ISO (2020)**** | Any solid plastic particle insoluble in water with any dimension between 1 µm and 1000 µm (=1 mm) | i – This term relates to plastic materials within the scope of ISO/TC 61. Rubber, fibres, cosmetic means, etc. are not within the scope. ii – Typically, a microplastic object represents a particle intentionally added to end-user products, such as cosmetic means, coatings, paints, etc. A microplastic object can also result as a fragment of the respective article. iii – Microplastics may show various shapes. iv – The defined dimension is related to the longest distance of the particle. |
California Water Boards***** | ‘Microplastics in Drinking Water’ are defined as solid (i) polymeric materials (ii) to which chemical additives or other substances may have been added, which are particles (iii) which have at least three dimensions that are greater than 1 nm and less than 5,000 µm. Polymers that are derived in nature that have not been chemically modified (other than by hydrolysis) are excluded. | i – ‘Solid’ means a substance or mixture which does not meet the definitions of liquid or gas. ii – ‘Polymeric material’ means either (i) a particle of any composition with a continuous polymer surface coating of any thickness, or (ii) a particle of any composition with a polymer content of greater than or equal to 1% by mass. iii – ‘Particle’ means a minute piece of matter with defined physical boundaries; a defined physical boundary is an interface |
*GESAMP 2015 **GESAMP 2016 ***European Commission 2022 ****McCoy 2021 ***** ISO 2020 |
The primary outcome of resolution 5/14 from UNEA 5.2 was the establishment of an INC and a mandate for negotiations to establish an international legally binding agreement to end plastic pollution. The agreement will address all plastic pollution, both in the terrestrial and marine environment. Thus, microplastics are only one of several categories of plastic pollution that will need to be addressed. By the end of 2024, the INC will meet at least five times to negotiate the structure and content of a legally binding agreement. The INC will negotiate on all aspects of the treaty, from its format and structure, to the objectives and goals and the provisions on control measures, monitoring and financing mechanisms (see Annex 1 for a comprehensive list).
While the content is yet to be determined, the resolution highlighted the following issues to be addressed in the negotiations which are particularly relevant for microplastics:
Even though the INC is requested to consider all aspects listed in Annex 1, and many are likely to be reflected in the provisions of the agreement, the negotiating countries may also agree to not integrate all measures and provisions. While the structure of the final agreement is not determined, drawing from the past fifty years of multilateral environmental negotiations and collaboration, some common features may be expected[1]Based on the Stockholm and Minamata Conventions, and Raubenheimer and Urho (2020)2020:
In this report, we base the proposals and recommendations on the assumption that the agreement will contain provisions addressing these aspects. The priority of the report is to provide input to the design of the general and operational provisions, as other reports have elaborated on other elements[2]e.g. Raubenheimer & Urho 2020; Rognerud et al. 2022.
Table 2. Overview of lifecycle phases, pathways and microplastic categories impacted by measures targeting each lifecycle stage.
Lifecycle stage | Pathways and considerations | Microplastic categories |
Upstream | ||
Polymer production |
|
|
Design |
|
|
Conversion |
|
|
Midstream | ||
Transportation and distribution |
|
|
Use |
|
|
Downstream | ||
Recovery |
|
|
Disposal |
|
|
Operational provisions addressing microplastics under an agreement will have to reflect that different measures and provisions may be required for different sources of microplastics and pathways across the product lifecycle (Table 2). In practical terms, microplastics can be categorised into the following four categories[1]OECD 2021 (Box 2):
Specific examples of the different categories of and their uses and release pathways are provided in Table 3.
Table 3. Examples of microplastic types within the four identified categories in Box 2, their relevance in the context of a microplastic definition, and typical uses or sources. This list is not exhaustive but includes some common microplastic types. A more elaborated list of potential microplastic sources or types is provided in Annex 6.
Type | Relevance for microplastic definition | Typical uses/sources and release pathways | |
Plastic pellets, flakes and powders |
|
| |
Intentionally added primary microplastics | Microbeads |
|
|
Glitter |
|
| |
Industrial abrasives |
|
| |
Rubber infill material |
|
| |
Polymer encapsulated agricultural products |
|
| |
Use-phase secondary microplastics | Microfibres |
|
|
Tyre, brake and road wear particles |
|
| |
Agricultural film fragments |
|
| |
Fisheries and aquaculture residues |
|
| |
Paint fragments |
|
| |
Degradation-based secondary microplastics |
|
|
Microplastics can be defined as an environmental pollutant. In this regard, when designing measures to address microplastic pollution, understanding the similarities and differences between microplastics and other environmental pollutants may prove beneficial. Table 4 lists the key similarities. These common traits are typically broad concepts that are used to classify pollutants, such as their potential to cause harm and occurrence in the environment that represents contamination. Microplastics are anthropogenic in origin. This corresponds with several other environmental pollutants, and thus introduces additional broad similarities. From these, it is possible to draw insights from a longer track record of monitoring and research for different pollutant types.
Table 4. Similarities between microplastics and other pollutants
Environmental occurrence |
|
Potential to cause harm |
|
Persistence |
|
Sources |
|
Fate |
|
Yet, several important distinctions exist between microplastics and other types of environmental pollutants. Many characteristics of microplastic pollution differ from other pollution types and this necessitates different approaches for addressing it within the context of both research and regulation. Table 5 summarises these differences.
In particular, the lack of a standardised framework for classifying microplastic is important. The concept of ‘microplastics’ representing an umbrella term encompassing a diverse suite of contaminants has already been introduced (Chapter 3.1). Several groupings of chemical pollutants exist – such as POPs, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) – but these represent groups of distinct and well classified chemical compounds. In contrast, different typologies present under the microplastic term are poorly defined. For example, microplastics occur across several orders of magnitude with regard to size and differ in terms of morphology, where defining size boundaries and classification or nomenclature related to shape have not yet been agreed.
Table 5. Differences between microplastics and other pollutants
Form |
|
Heterogeneous distribution |
|
Behaviour and fate |
|
Potential to cause harm |
|
Lack of systematic framework for classification |
|
Analytical detection |
|
The particulate nature of microplastic pollution is a critical aspect. This represents an important distinction from dissolved pollutants which behave differently in the environment, follow different transport pathways and present different modalities of harmful effects (Table 5). Parallels can be drawn with other forms of particulate pollution, such as particulate matter. In fact, microplastics of a certain size form a component of particulate matter pollution[1] Sridharan et al. 2021. However, microplastics exhibit a wider range in particle characteristics that can also be more morphologically complex, which limits the extent of the similarities.
The particulate nature of microplastic and the lack of a standard classification system also introduces analytical challenges related to detection and quantification in different sample types. There is no analytical instrument that can process an untreated sample and yield a single number corresponding to a microplastic concentration based upon a standardised method. Instead, there is typically a need to extract and isolate microplastics from a matrix through a series of treatment steps before utilising one or more analytical techniques that can be adapted to report in either numbers of plastic particles or concentrations of individual polymers. This is approached differently depending on the aims of individual studies and can vary between investigating organisation, country, and region. Not all microplastic types (e.g. sizes, shapes, polymer types) can be recovered from matrices and quantified analytically in a uniform way. Microplastic data may therefore only represent a proportion of the total microplastic pollution. This issue has been further accentuated by the development of a wide variety of different analytical protocols with a lack of harmonisation thus far. Similarly, it has also limited the development of standard toxicity tests to investigate the risks posed by different microplastic types.
Finally, microplastics differ from other forms of plastic pollution. Whilst there are similarities related to the material properties of microplastics and macroplastics (larger plastic items from which a proportion of microplastic pollution is in fact derived), there are several important distinctions that warrant different approaches to handling microplastics in the context of the global agreement. The small size of microplastics introduces unique challenges for detection and characterisation and can impart different effects. Table 6 presents these differences, many of which pertain to size.
Table 6. Differences between microplastic and macroplastic pollution
Size |
|
Detection and analysis |
|
Potential to cause harm |
|
Source identification |
|
Sources can be defined as the initial point at which microplastics are formed and/or released into the environment. The term ‘environment’ in this sense can refer to a perceived natural environment, like a river, a technical system, such as a wastewater network, or even the built environment, such as the home environment.
In theory, any plastic item specifically engineered to be small in size (e.g. microplastic encapsulation of slow-release fertilisers), any product that contains microplastics (e.g. personal care products containing microbeads) or any plastic item represents a potential source of microplastic. Some polymer types or final material compositions have a greater potential to shed microplastic particles when exposed to degradative forces. Conceptualising microplastic from a source perspective represents a potential mechanism through which to address microplastic in a global agreement. In this case, estimates of source emissions and assessments of the potential to generate microplastic are useful tools for evaluating different plastic uses and practices.
In addition to these direct sources, there are numerous potential release pathways. These are often referred to as sources in different contexts, as they may represent the main input to a studied location – for example, wastewater effluent discharging into a water body. However, microplastics have passed through different systems before entering effluent and the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) is not the primary source for these microplastics. Source is therefore used to describe the origins of microplastic and pathway to describe the route of environmental release. Figure 2 gives examples of sources and pathways of environmental release for microplastic particles.
Box 5 summarises published estimates of microplastic emissions performed at different geographical resolutions and for different microplastic types. From these assessments, several sources have been identified as likely contributing a substantial proportion of total microplastic emissions. These include tyre, brake and road wear particles, primary microplastics such as those used in personal care products or agriculture, fibres from synthetic textiles, plastic pellets, flakes and powders and rubber infill materials. These represent sources where plastics or polymer-containing products are known to be used and have the potential to release microplastics into the environment; these estimates focus on known potential sources only. In addition, whilst studies provide valuable insights to investigate the relative importance of different sources, they are hindered by disparities in the methodology and reported units which limits the extent to which they can be directly compared. Access to data to accurately estimate emissions from different sources in harmonised reporting units represents a persistent hindrance to establish national, regional or global source inventories for microplastic.
The geographies of microplastic sources are likely to be important. Many sources, including those which represent dominant releases to the environment, may exhibit substantial regional variability. This may be based upon the predominant industries, different practices the leading microplastic release, and the level of economic development, amongst others. For example, many primary microplastics related to agricultural production represent expensive products so this microplastic source may be concentrated in specific regions with sufficient economic development to justify this cost. On the other hand, countries with less well-established solid waste and wastewater systems may see larger environmental releases of microplastics associated with these pathways. This aspect represents an important factor to consider in the context of a global agreement on microplastic.
Several studies have attempted to quantify the scales of different microplastic sources. These are often performed at the country or regional level; for example, for Norway[1]A. Lusher & Pettersen 2021; P. Sundt et al. 2016; Peter Sundt et al. 2014, Sweden[2]Magnusson et al. 2016, Denmark[3]Lassen et al. 2015, the Netherlands[4]Verschoor et al. 2016, Germany[5]Essel et al. 2015, Switzerland[6]Kawecki & Nowack 2019, China[7] Cheung & Fok 2017; T. Wang, Li, et al. 2019 and the EU[8]Gouin et al. 2015; Hann et al. 2018a; Sherrington et al. 2016. These correspond with several tens of thousands of tonnes of microplastics released per country per year, although different studies focus on different microplastic sources. For the EU, approximately 14 million tonnes of microplastics are estimated to be released from selected important sources in the period 2013-2017 (of which 4.05 million tonnes are released to surface waters)[9]Hann et al. 2018a.
Boucher and Friot[10]Boucher & Friot 2017bv estimated releases of primary microplastics and some sources of secondary microplastics, but scaled this up to a global level, outlining a central figure of 2.9 million tonnes that is lost to the environment each year. Microplastic fibres from synthetic textiles and particles derived from tyre wear were the two largest sources (together, 63%). These sources are often presented as secondary microplastics elsewhere. Land-based activities were responsible for the almost all (98%) of the losses of primary microplastics, globally. Eunomia estimated the annual environmental release of intentionally added microplastics from different sectors and product groups in Europe[11]ECHA 2020. In total, 11,200 to 95,000 tonnes are released each year, where rubber infill materials represent the largest source. These materials are used in artificial sports turf and can be spread during heavy rainfall events, player dispersion, and during winter in countries that receive higher snowfall there can be losses of infill materials through snow removal, representing a regionally specific microplastic source. An estimated 2,000 to 72,000 tonnes of rubber infill materials are released to the environment per year across the EU, with a concentration in northern European countries[12]ECHA 2020; Hann et al. 2018a. Other important sources include microplastics contained in detergents, microplastics used in agriculture and horticulture and cosmetic products.
Vehicle tyres have been identified as one of the largest sources of microplastics by several studies[13]Galafassi et al. 2019; Knight et al. 2020; Kole et al. 2017; Sommer et al. 2018. Annually, 5.9 million tonnes are estimated to be released across the world, equivalent to 0.81 kg per capita per year[14]Kole et al. 2017. This source can be expanded to include other microplastic releases related to vehicle use and road environments, including brake and road wear particles.
Microplastic fibres are also widely observed in environmental samples and estimated to represent an important source[15]oucher & Friot 2017b; Napper & Thompson 2016; Y.-Q. Zhang et al. 2021. Small fibres are produced during the use and laundering of synthetic textiles, and different fabric types and laundry processes can alter emissions[16]Napper & Thompson 2016. However, the particle volume of a fibre is comprehensively lower than many other microplastic types, so estimated emissions calculated by mass (instead of particle count) suggest a lower proportion of total release – for example, in the order of 0.5 and 11.8 g per capita per year from domestic washing machine use[17] Y.-Q. Zhang et al. 2021.
Additional specific sources have also received much attention and, in some cases, subsequent legislation limiting or banning their use. The most well-known example is the case of microbeads. Emissions of microbeads derived from personal care products use have been estimated for several countries, regions or cities[18]Cheung & Fok 2016; 2017; Kalčíková et al. 2017; Praveena et al. 2018; however, these are typically also presented in units corresponding to particle counts. Plastic pellets, flakes and powders have also been estimated as a source of microplastics to the environment, typically through unintentional losses during shipping and manufacture. Estimates of this source vary, but the potential upper range of this sources places it second in the list of microplastics releases to surface waters in the EU: 16,888 to 167,431 tonnes per year[19]Hann et al. 2018a.
It is important to note that this list is not exhaustive and only addresses a number of sources that have been identified as being important or dominant. Several additional sources of microplastic exist and have been highlighted in national and regional assessments of the scales of emissions.
Estimates for all these sources are dwarfed by mass-based estimates for the annual release of plastic litter, which range between 0.8 and 12.7 million tonnes from various sources[1] Jambeck et al. 2015; Lebreton et al. 2017; Meijer et al. 2021. Plastic litter represents a source of microplastic particles through degradation and fragmentation. Yet, the scales upon which these processes occur are still poorly defined for a range of different plastic items and environmental conditions[2]Lin et al. 2022; K. Zhang et al. 2021. Thus, the actual release of microplastic from this total is not known. This information can be a critical factor in establishing the most effective approach to address microplastic in a global agreement on plastic: if most plastic litter ultimately degrades into microplastic particles, then targeting plastic litter will make the most significant reduction in microplastic pollution over relevant timescales. If common plastic litter types do not degrade into microplastics over such relevant timescales, then addressing other sources of microplastic will be more important.
In addition to these efforts to quantify contributions from various known sources, it is possible that numerous other sources have not yet been identified. These could include:
Detection of microplastic in environmental samples is not a straightforward task[1]Silva et al. 2018. Some microplastic types are difficult to identify with confidence using the most common analytical approaches, such as tyre wear particles[2]Rauert et al. 2021 and paint fragments[3]Käppler et al. 2016. Additionally, protocols for sample processing may destroy some polymers[4]Enders et al. 2017; R. R. Hurley et al. 2018 or offer a low recovery for particle types based on the selected method[5]Dimante-Deimantovica et al. 2022 or microplastic density or morphology[6]Way et al. 2022. Finally, many methods used to analyse microplastic concentrations have a lower size limit of detection which may miss a substantial proportion of the total microplastic load, as well as some sources in their entirety[7] Conkle et al. 2018; Pérez-Guevara et al. 2022. These challenges hinder efforts to estimate sources related to the examples given here, and other unknown sources may still be entirely undetected for these reasons.
Many microplastic sources are expected to vary significantly across both time and space___[1]Kallenbach et al. 2021. Monitoring of microplastic sources and environmental pollution has increased in recent years, but the global coverage of monitoring data is still fragmentary across spatio||temporal scales[2]Amy L. Lusher et al. 2021. Sources that are episodic in nature may be missed by the temporal frame of monitoring activities or as a result of challenges in monitoring during important release events (e.g. during flood events)[3] Hitchcock 2020. Some countries or regions may exhibit several important and unique microplastic sources but have not yet been subject to substantial monitoring efforts.
The ubiquity of many common polymer types, combined with a lack of distinguishing features that can be detected through physical and chemical characterisation techniques, represents a major challenge hindering the possibility to track or apportion microplastic sources. Some particle types, such as microbeads or microplastic fibres, exhibit a characteristic morphology and polymeric composition that can indicate the likely origin[1]Helm 2017. However, particles that have fragmented from a larger plastic item generally do not offer sufficient information to identify specific sources with confidence. A single particle is often too small to identify specific chemical compounds or other discriminatory features through current analytical approaches[2]Fahrenfeld et al. 2019. Ageing of particles due to environmental exposure introduces additional challenges in this regard.
The latter point (3.) is the primary mechanism confounding efforts to back-calculate microplastic sources from environmental monitoring data. This has been highlighted in several studies that attempt to identify potential sources responsible for environmental pollution, which are often qualitative or are unable to achieve full source apportionment[3]Ashwini & Varghese 2020; Campanale, Stock, et al. 2020; T. Wang, Zou, et al. 2019. Only some selected particle typologies can be related to probable inputs (e.g., fibrous microplastics likely derive from synthetic textiles) or some known local sources (e.g., plastics used in aquaculture with a corresponding colour, texture and polymer type).
Figure 2. Major sources and release pathways of microplastics in freshwater and terrestrial (A) and marine environments (C) and associated fate and transport processes (B, D).
Finally, whilst it has been established that microplastics present several challenges that sets them apart from other contaminants (e.g., macroplastics, chemicals), some emerging microplastic sources may generate particle typologies that introduce further complexity. This includes potential future increases in ‘transient’ microplastic derived from increasing uptake of biodegradable or compostable plastics for a range of products, as an alternative material to conventional polymers (Box 6). Microplastic particles may be generated as these products biodegrade[1]Kubowicz & Booth 2017; Wei et al. 2021. There is a lack of research regarding the potential toxicity of these particles during degradation or the timescales over which they occur for a range of polymer types in a range of environments[2]Kubowicz & Booth 2017.
In the context of this report, biodegradable and compostable plastics are important in terms of their potential to act as a source of microplastics to the environment either due to incomplete degradation or on a transient basis during degradation. Standards for compostable plastics include disintegration as a requirement, necessitating that plastic materials physically fragment into microplastic-size particles within a relatively short timeframe. Biodegradable plastics may also produce microplastics during their degradation, especially for products which are purposefully fragmented after use, such as in the case of some agricultural mulching films. Microplastic may form for both these material types in the case of incomplete degradation[1]Filiciotto & Rothenberg 2021. More knowledge is required on the potential impacts of these microplastics, including associated additive chemicals, on timescales relevant to their degradation. In addition, the potential for microplastic particles derived from these materials to either form or migrate into an environment in which they are not biodegradable (either due to mishandling of waste or transport of particles by water or wind) should be considered[2]SAPEA 2020. Knowledge on the occurrence of microplastic composed of biodegradable or compostable polymer types may be hindered by analytical methods that destroy these polymers during sample treatmente.g.[3]e.g., Möller et al. 2022.
Debates around the use of biodegradable and compostable plastics
Interest in the use of compostable or biodegradable polymers is growing. The concept that plastics may degrade in the environment into biologically useful components represents a potential solution for some plastic applications, particularly those which are difficult to manage after use[4]SAPEA 2020. However, the extent to which these materials represent a ‘golden solution’ to plastic waste pollution is being discussed[5]Narancic et al. 2018. This centres on the fact that no biodegradable or compostable plastics are biodegradable in all natural environments[6]Albertsson & Hakkarainen 2017. In reality, the solutions to tackle global plastic pollution are elsewhere, such in the reduction of plastic consumption and appropriate disposal of items. Certified biodegradable or compostable plastics are designed for specific applications or end-of-life scenarios and current standards or test methods focus on assessing biodegradability under the specific conditions dictated by these scenarios. As a result, it has been recommended that the use of biodegradable or compostable plastics are limited to particular applications where handling of plastic waste is difficult or losses are expected to occur, for example agricultural mulching films or fishing gear[7]SAPEA 2020.
Within this, there is also a need to improve the labelling and communication about these materials, such as connecting the biodegradability to the specific relevant environment, to enhance the level of understanding about what these materials represent. These recommendations aim to limit the extent to which biodegradable or compostable plastics are used where their labelling as such may lead to the disposal of a wide range of plastic products directly in the open environment with the expectation that they will break down into biological useful components. The extent to which these recommendations limit the use of these polymer types versus the current trend towards their use – as well as the ways in which these products are used and disposed of – will determine the extent to which these plastics represent important microplastic sources in the future. More, and open, knowledge on degradation rates and the potential risks associated with degrading materials, including non-plastic components such as dyes or plasticisers, and the potential for interactions with other pollutants is needed before biodegradable and compostable polymer types can be considered a viable non-polluting alternative to conventional non-degradable plastics[8]Ding et al. 2022.
In addition to microplastic sources, measures under a global agreement could also target pathways as a means of assessing or minimising environmental pollution. Pathways can include both releases to the environment and the passage of particles within and between environments. Figure 2 depicts several well-established pathways of microplastic input and transport in terrestrial and aquatic environments, many of which are also relevant for other environments such as arctic, alpine and desert environments.
In some cases, sources of microplastics do not directly release particles into the natural environment. Instead, the microplastics pass through one or more systems before eventual release. A commonly used example of this is a WWTP. These facilities receive microplastics from a diverse set of sources including, but not limited to, fibres from laundering of synthetic textiles, microplastics from personal care products and – depending on their connectivity – microplastic particles from road environments or industrial effluents[1]A. L. Lusher et al. 2018. A proportion of these particles may be captured by different wastewater treatment processes[2]A. L. Lusher et al. 2020. Wastewater effluents discharging into water bodies or the spreading of sewage sludge onto land represents two pathways for environmental release of microplastics from WWTPs. In many cases, pathways such as these represent an opportunity to intercept microplastics or to identify important sources of microplastics that are released to the environment[3]Freeman et al. 2020.
Environmental pathways relate to the fate and transport of microplastics released into the environment. This includes processes that govern the sedimentation or deposition of particles, their (re)mobilisation and entrainment in air or water (Figure 2). These processes can establish hotspots[4]R. Hurley et al. 2018; Kane et al. 2020 and, in some cases, hot moments[5]Hitchcock 2020 of microplastic accumulation. Monitoring data that measure microplastic concentrations in the environment represent a combination of source dynamics and the net result of fate and transport processes that encourage accumulation versus mobilisation. For example, a hotspot observed at a monitoring site may reflect: i) proximity to an important source or release pathway; ii) the result of physical processes that encourage particles to be deposited and concentrated at the location; or iii) a combination of these factors[6]Kallenbach et al. 2021 . Due to point ii), it is possible for high microplastic concentrations to occur in a location without major sources or release pathways in the immediate vicinity. An example of this is the development of oceanic gyres caused by currents concentrating particles[7] Law & Thompson 2014. This introduces additional complexity to efforts to track sources of microplastics in the environment: particles can’t necessarily be related to nearby sources. Currently, research into the fate and transport of microplastic of different typologies (e.g. different particle characteristics) and in a range of environments (e.g. cities, soils, rivers, oceans) is fragmentary[8]Alimi et al. 2018; Allen et al. 2022; R. R. Hurley & Nizzetto 2018 . Several knowledge gaps remain, hindering a thorough and effective interpretation of monitoring data[9]Amy L. Lusher et al. 2021.
A global agreement could potentially use microplastic monitoring data to establish important sources or pathways and target effective strategies for minimising environmental pollution. This would help to focus onto relevant microplastic types and release pathways by matching effort with scales of contamination. However, the knowledge gaps described here challenge this approach. As discussed in Section 3.2.1, we may not have a complete perspective over the full range of microplastic sources contaminating the global environment. Microplastic monitoring has not yet been performed in many regions and monitoring across relevant spatiotemporal scales is still lacking across most parts of the globe. Even in the case of widespread and well-designed monitoring activities, the current lack of understanding about the fate and transport of microplastic in the environment will limit how effectively data can be interpreted in the context of a global agreement. Monitoring represents a useful tool – especially due to the current ongoing advances in analytical methods and harmonisation – but it should be used as part of a larger toolkit until critical knowledge gaps can be addressed.
With the knowledge of microplastic presence in the global environment, this has raised concerns for the impact they may have on ecosystems, biota and ultimately humans. As mentioned in the previous sections, everywhere that microplastics have been investigated: they have been found, although the concentrations and particle characteristics can vary between studies and environmental compartments, as well as spatially and temporally. Despite the substantial information on microplastic occurrence in the environment gathered in the last decade, understanding of the consequences, impacts and risks associated with microplastic pollution remains in its infancy[1] Amy L. Lusher et al. 2021. The complexity of gathering comparable data has been highlighted as one of the challenges to understand the risk and consequences of microplastics to the environment and humans. One reason for this is the diversity of approaches applied to investigating microplastics[2]Rist et al. 2021. This diversity, coupled with access to methods, infrastructure and funding, has resulted in widespread debate on the reliability and comparability of reported results[3]Cowger et al. 2020; Provencher et al. 2020; Underwood et al. 2017. Fully validated, harmonised and, at best, standardised, methods are necessary for traditional environmental risk assessment approaches to microplastics pollution[4]Gouin et al. 2019. That said, substantial effort has been made by the research community to achieve this[5]e.g. Koelmans et al. 2022; Rubin et al. 2021. Information gathered from environmental assessments, as well as laboratory exposure experiments, can provide an overview of potential impacts and risks at given exposure concentrations. In the following sub-sections, we present the current state of knowledge on impacts and risks to the environment, for organisms and for human health.
Microplastics move through the earth’s system through a combination of natural processes, driven by wind and water movement or transported by biota. They have now been found in all five earth systems: the hydrosphere, atmosphere, geosphere, biosphere and cryosphere. The impacts of microplastics to a given ecosystem will depend on their ability to move within a specific ecosystem, their concentration, their chemical makeup and the receiving ecosystem. The heterogeneous occurrence of microplastics, their persistence in the environment and their impacts could be linked to a combination of morphology, size and the composition of chemicals or other associated additives.
Plastics are found on land and in freshwater and marine systems. Within each of these systems they can be divided into different environmental compartments, each with different properties which can accommodate a variety of microplastic particles. For example, low density and buoyant particles might be retained floating in the water column and be moved by currents, whilst heavier, dense and less buoyant particles could more readily sink and reach the sediment zone without moving far from their sources.
To assess the risk of plastic pollution to the environment, one must evaluate how likely it is that the environment may be impacted as a result of exposure to plastics. In risk assessment evaluation, exposure can be assessed by measuring environmental concentrations and a prediction and evaluation of the likelihood and magnitude of the potential adverse effects can be derived via laboratory experiments for the estimation of the threshold dose/concentration. The combination of both exposure and effect of plastics leads to a risk assessment. Risk assessments are needed to focus investigations and solutions towards the issues with the highest risk. They are also useful for interregional comparisons, harmonisation and to guide policy making and measures as needed by international requirements such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). One approach taken by ECHA in the proposed REACH restriction on intentionally added microplastics was to treat microplastics as “non-threshold substances”, in a similar way to how persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic substances are assessed under the REACH regulation (see Chapter 4 for more information). In this regard, any release to the environment can be assumed to result in a risk due to the accumulation over time.
Organisms interact with microplastics through (1) ingestion, (2) inhalation, (3) absorption, (4) physical contact/entanglement or (5) trophic transfer, depending on the size of the particle.
The small-size and ubiquitous presence of microplastics in the environment means that microplastics are available for ingestion by an array of species, including species which feed through filtration, suspension and deposit feeding, as well as predators and scavengers. Many reviews are available summarising the ingestion of microplastics in the environment, including marine[1]Covernton et al. 2021; Pinheiro et al. 2020, freshwater[2]Ta & Babel 2022; Talbot & Chang 2022 and terrestrial[3]Azeem et al. 2021; Dissanayake et al. 2022 ecosystems. Notably, terrestrial systems are still far less studied than aquatic systems. In many cases, observations in the wild focus on gills, stomach or gut contents or in faecal matter, representing ingestion but also egestion of microplastic particles. The presence of biofilms on microplastics may play a role in the likelihood of microplastics being targeted as a food source, either because it impacts visual, olfactory or gustatory cues[4]Kooi et al. 2017.
In a recent assessment of factors determining microplastic ingestion by fish, there did not appear to be any link between trophic level and microplastic concentration, suggesting that there is limited biomagnification[5]Biomagnification: A term usually associated with an increase in a compound’s concentration (such as pollutant or pesticide) as it travels up the food chain, from prey to predators. of microplastics in fish[6]Covernton et al. 2021. Although, larger fish were likely to contain more microplastics, and planktivorous fish tended to have more particles. If lower trophic organisms are prey to larger predators, this may have subsequent ramifications throughout the food web, including trophic transfer and bioaccumulation[7]Bioaccumulation: The accumulation over time of a substance or contaminant (such as a pesticide or heavy metal) in a living organism. No transfer to other organisms.,[8]Au et al. 2017.
Laboratory studies have allowed a greater understanding of the residence time of particles in the gastrointestinal tract and provided opportunities to study the movement of particles outside of the digestive tract. Once ingested, microplastics could cause harm through several pathways. In the case of fish, some of the effects observed include behaviour, sensory and neuromuscular functions, metabolism, alimentary and excretory systems, microbiome diversity and the immune system[9]Jacob et al. 2020 . Regarding benthic species, toxicity, biochemical and physical effects of microplastics are seldom reported[10]Pinheiro et al. 2020. The effects of microplastic ingestion across taxa are highly variable, with research suggesting that smaller organisms are more susceptible for negative impacts[11]Foley et al. 2018, and that small particles (<20 µm) cause more effects[12] Jacob et al. 2020.
Respiratory uptake has been identified as a route of exposure for organisms, whether that is through inhalation or ventilation in aquatic environments. Ventilation can concentrate microplastics from the surrounding environment on gills of fish and invertebrates[1]Gray & Weinstein 2017; Watts et al. 2016; F. Zhang et al. 2021, whilst microplastics have been reported in human lung tissues[2]Jenner, Rotchell, et al. 2022.
Smaller sized microplastics are likely capable of being absorbed across plant cell boundaries, such as being taken up through root hairs and translocating from roots to leaves[1]Azeem et al. 2021. However, impacts on terrestrial plants are not well understood[2]Dissanayake et al. 2022. The resulting responses from plants likely depend on species, soil and microplastic properties. Interactions could induce changes in plant physiology, including moisture, density, structure and nutrient content, which in turn could alter plant root characteristics, growth and nutrient uptake[3]Azeem et al. 2021. One particular study identified that germination was delayed[4]Bosker et al. 2019. This may have consequences for crop growth.
Adherence and entanglement are commonly observed impacts of large plastics and litter on biota. Similar impacts have been observed for microplastics to smaller organisms. Adherence of fibres to surfaces of algae has been observed in the Great Lakes[1]Peller et al. 2021. Entanglement in fibrous microplastics has been observed for many species, including entanglement on swimming and feeding appendages of invertebrates and value gaps of bivalves[2]Rebelein et al. 2021. Observations of entanglement include sea pens and hermit crabs affected in the deep sea[3]Taylor et al. 2016. A likely implication of entanglement is restriction in movement and feeding, or trophic transfer if the adhered particles are presented when organisms are consumed by a predator.
Once microplastics have been ingested by an organism, if they are retained, or simply still present when the organism becomes prey itself, the consumer will be indirectly consuming microplastics, in a process referred to as trophic transfer. This process has been documented in invertebrates[1]Farrell & Nelson 2013, fish[2]Santana et al. 2017 and even mammals[3]Nelms et al. 2018. Trophic transfer occurs when microplastics are consumed alongside prey, this can include microplastics adhered to the surfaces of algae[4]Bhattacharya et al. 2010 or appendages of zooplankton[5]Cole et al. 2013. Trophic transfer has been posited as a likely exposure route to humans, if they consume food which itself contains microplastics. This has been suggested to be more likely with seafood where gut contents are not removed[6]A. Lusher et al. 2017. Even though this route for microplastic ingestion may be significant, there may be low levels of bioaccumulation when microplastics are egested along with other waste particles.
Humans encounter microplastics in different ways: we wear clothing made of synthetic textiles or use personal care products (e.g., toothpaste, facial scrubs, cleansers, cosmetics) containing microplastics[1]Guerranti et al. 2019 , we consume food and beverages which might contain microplastics and plastics are also used in the production of some medical devices and in pharmacological applications[2]Kapoor et al. 2015; Maitz 2015. Given this information, microplastics, in a similar way to other substances of concern, pose an exposure risk to humans through three pathways:
Microplastics have been identified in food and beverage products. Given this information it is not unlikely that humans ingest microplastics from a variety of sources. Possibly the most discussed source is seafood, which is not surprising given the marine focus of microplastics research in the past decade[3]A. Lusher et al. 2017. Other food commodities found to contain microplastics include salts[4]Kim & Song 2021, honey[5]Mühlschlegel et al. 2017, sugar[6]Afrin, Rahman, Hossain, et al. 2022, fruit and vegetables[7]Oliveri Conti et al. 2020, poultry[8]Kedzierski et al. 2020, packaged meat, fish and food containers[9]Du et al. 2020; Karami et al. 2018; Kedzierski et al. 2020, drinking water[10]Danopoulos et al. 2020; World Health Organization 2022, alcoholic beverages[11] Joana C. Prata et al. 2020 and tea bags[12]Afrin, Rahman, Akbor, et al. 2022; Mei et al. 2022. Food packaging[13]Fadare et al. 2020 and preparation might also act as a source (e.g., plastic cutting boards)[14]Habib et al. 2022, as well as the settling of dust during meal-time[15]Catarino et al. 2018. In most cases, the sources of the microplastics are expected to come from the packaging material, rather than the environment. Nevertheless, drinking water has been suggested as one of the biggest sources of exposure[16]Senathirajah et al. 2021.
Humans have been estimated to possibly ingest 0.1-5 g of microplastics a week through various pathways[17]Senathirajah et al. 2021. The annual exposure microplastic of humans, by way of ingested food products, have been estimated to be as high as 52,000 particles year-1[18]Cox et al. 2019 , with oral exposure expected to be higher in places where fish and shellfish consumption is higher. When considering dust settling during a meal, estimated exposure increased to 68,415 particles year-1[19]Catarino et al. 2018. See Box 7 for an elaboration on consequences of intake.
Dermal contact with microplastics may occur when humans come into contact with materials generating microplastics, although the likelihood of dermal uptake is limited to the barrier of the upper-most skin layer (stratum corneum). The skin forms a barrier and microplastics need to be <1 µm to penetrate this barrier. Three potential scenarios have recently been highlighted: (i) human skin provided a formidable barrier to microplastics and nanoplastics, (ii) hair follicles act as collection sites for nanoplastics, and (iii) physiochemical properties of particles will influence the possibility for permeation[1]Revel et al. 2018; World Health Organization 2022. Another dermal exposure route comes from micro-and nanoplastics generated from plastic medical devices introduced to the body, such as prosthetic replacements and implants[2]Sternschuss et al. 2012.
Particulate matter is present in the atmosphere. It contains a mixture of particles from various natural and anthropogenic sources[1]Morakinyo et al. 2016. Human health risk assessments suggest that the inhalable faction of particulate matter (usually defined as the fraction between 2.5 and 10 μm[2]World Health Organization 2022), represents the smaller sizes of microplastics. Compared to other environmental matrixes, the atmosphere has been studied to a lesser extent. Nevertheless, microplastics have been detected in outdoor and indoor air in urban and remote environments[3]Gasperi et al. 2018; Habibi et al. 2022; Luo et al. 2022.
Studies highlight that people are exposed to higher concentration of microplastics within their homes[4]Jenner et al. 2021 or areas with high human activity[5]Jenner, Sadofsky, et al. 2022. The main sources of microplastics in indoor and outdoor air are likely a combination of degraded and fragmented textiles and other plastic items, as well as tyre and road wear, respectively. Studies of indoor and outdoor air have simulated the presence of inhalation by humans, suggesting that microplastics are in concentrations ranging from 1.7-17.3 particles m-3 [6]Torres-Agullo et al. 2022; Vianello et al. 2019. The annual exposure of microplastics to humans, by way of inhalation, has been estimated to be as high as 110,000 microplastics year-1 [7]Cox et al. 2019. Considering the many emerging approaches to calculate exposure and inhalation from air, it can be challenging to come to conclusions on estimated exposure. In view of the current detection limit for microplastics particles ~10 µm, it is unlikely that particles detected in the aforementioned studies reach the alveolar areas of the lungs[8]World Health Organization 2022.
Potential impacts associated with microplastic interactions can be split into two broad categories (1) physical impacts of the particles themselves, or (2) the chemical constituents either included during plastic manufacture or sorbed from the surrounding environment[1] Gamarro & Costanzo n.d..
The size of microplastics is probably the most important factor which will determine how organisms interact with, and the impacts of microplastic particles. Following ingestion or inhalation, microplastic absorption, translocation and distribution in circulatory system, uptake from the gut and entry into different tissues and cells may occur. The extent of adverse effects will be linked to the physical and chemical characteristics of the microplastics, as well as the organisms it enters. Microplastics have a high surface area which may lead to toxic impacts on organisms (and humans) which ingest them. Some pathways of toxicity include oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, disruption of energy homeostasis and metabolism, disruption of immune function and neurotoxicity, carcinogenicity and reproductive toxicity[2]Joana Correia Prata et al. 2020; Rahman et al. 2021. In additional, microplastics may act as vectors for microorganisms, including bacteria, such as Vibrio ssp.[3]Kirstein et al. 2016. If pathogens reach tissues, they may cause tissue damage or alter the gut microbiome[4]Zhu et al. 2018.
Consequences of microplastic intake by humans may be localised disease, oxidative stress, inflammation, cytotoxicity, enhanced immune response and translocation[5]Joana Correia Prata 2018; Revel et al. 2018; Wright & Kelly 2017. In terms of biota, microplastic exposure studies find effects as well as no-effects, as recently reviewed in Gomes et al.[6]Gomes et al. 2022 where little consistency regarding the biological impacts on biota were seen across 220 studies.
In addition to potential adverse effects from interacting with microplastics themselves, impacts could also result from (a) inherent contaminants leaching from the microplastics, and (b) disassociating contaminants sorbed or adhered to the microplastics from the environment. Additives are not bound to the polymer structure, and along with a small proportion of unreacted monomers present in the plastic, and those sorbed from the environment, they can be (re)released to the environment or receiving organism. These chemicals can be toxic, carcinogenic or have endocrine-disrupting properties[1]Campanale, Massarelli, et al. 2020. However, it is not yet clear how significant a role microplastics play in contributing to exposure to these chemicals. Examples of sorbed contaminates include polychlorinated biphenyls and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, these substances can be carcinogenic. Furthermore, phthalates and bisphenols are considered to be endocrine disrupting compounds, which have been linked to reproductive and developmental disorders (cancer, blood infection, early puberty and genital defects)[2]Gamarro & Costanzo n.d..
Human exposure likely occurs by inhalation, ingestion and dermal contact. Data is mostly concentrated for dietary exposure, whilst inhalation and dermal contact refers to smaller sized particles.
Oral exposure for humans has been investigated by both the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO). They conducted two case studies on dietary exposure to chemical substances from microplastics contained in seafood[1]Chain (CONTAM) 2016; A. Lusher et al. 2017. Mussel (225g) consumption was used for a worst-case scenario case study, considering that they are eaten whole. Both studies came to the overall conclusion that if shellfish are a source of microplastics to humans, the risk of exposure to microplastics and humans could be considered negligible. It is important to highlight that there were a number of assumptions in these calculations, and only limited data was used.
Both the nature and extent of adverse health effects of microplastics on the human body following exposure are still under investigation[2]Gamarro & Costanzo n.d.. As of 2022, microplastics[3]Methods used for the identification of smaller microplastics (<20 µm) are not necessarily robust or use the most technologically advanced approaches. So, whilst these studies present an indicator of microplastic presence in tissues outside of the digestive system, further studies to validate these observations are required. have been reported in human blood[4]Leslie et al. 2022, breast milk[5] Ragusa et al. 2022, placentas[6]Ragusa et al. 2021 and lungs[7]Amato-Lourenço et al. 2021; Jenner, Rotchell, et al. 2022; Pauly et al. 1998. Historical lung biopsies reporting fibrosis and lesions containing acrylic, polyester and nylon dust have long been seen in lung biopsies from textile workers[8]Pimentel et al. 1975. Prolonged exposure might lead to persistent lung diseases, cancer and death[9]Joana Correia Prata 2018. There is evidence that microplastics also leave the human body, with particles being identified in the human stool[10] Ibrahim et al. 2021; Schwabl et al. 2019. Additionally, phthalate plasticisers have been identified in blood, sweat and urine[11]Genuis et al. 2012; Lee et al. 2021. The illnesses and disease linked to associated chemicals (phthalates, organochlorines, PCBs, PBDEs and toxic metals) suggest that microplastic uptake may pose a significant risk. Although due to the methodological limitations, there is large uncertainty about human exposure to biologically relevant particles < 10 μm. Even with the method limitations and need for further research and development to target the smallest microplastics, there is sufficient evidence to necessitate a precautionary approach[12]Gamarro & Costanzo n.d..
In addition to these potential direct effects on organisms, indirect impacts to ecosystems may also occur. This refers to changes in one or more properties of an environment, including both biotic and abiotic factors, as a result of the occurrence of microplastic which may alter habitat conditions and introduce knock-on effects. Indirect impacts are likely to occur in many environments[1]Khalid et al. 2020; Ockenden et al. 2021; F. Zhang et al. 2020 , where soil environments are discussed here as an example. The occurrence of microplastics in soils may alter a range of soil physicochemical and biological properties, including the soil structure[2]de Souza Machado et al. 2018; Lozano et al. 2021, hydrology[3]Wan et al. 2019, pH[4]Zhao et al. 2021, microbial community structure and diversity[5]Hou et al. 2021; Rong et al. 2021; Jie Wang et al. 2020 and enzyme activity[6]Huang et al. 2019; Zhao et al. 2021. These factors can affect the way in which soils support healthy plant growth, for example by changing the availability of moisture or nutrients[7]Rong et al. 2021; Wan et al. 2019 or affecting root and plant development[8]de Souza Machado et al. 2019; Yao et al. 2022, therefore imparting indirect impacts on plants[9]Khalid et al. 2020. It is expected that microplastic occurrence will influence several of these individual properties simultaneously and in different ways. More knowledge is needed to better unravel the complexities of soil-microplastic interaction[10] F. Wang et al. 2022, as well as the cascade of effects across different fundamental levels in soil ecosystems, such as how micro-scale effects can propagate indirect impacts across wider spatial or temporal scales[11]de Souza Machado et al. 2019. Indirect impacts may, in many environments, create an interplay of effects and a series of feedback loops which may complicate our understanding or assessment of risk.
Over the past decade, awareness and understanding of microplastic pollution has steadily increased, partially driven by UNEA resolutions 1/6, 2/11, 3/7 and 4/6 (see Annex 5) calling for increased research into the sources and pathways of microplastics into the environment, as well as relevant control measures, best practices and harmonised monitoring methods.
In 2019, UNEA resolution 4/6 marked a step change as member states were specifically invited to work with the private sector to:
Despite the apparent agreement on the need to eliminate microplastic pollution, reviews have elaborated on the limited extent of microplastic regulations[1]Diana et al. 2022; FanpLESStic-sea 2019; NOWPAP CEARAC 2020; OECD 2021; UNEP 2017; 2018b; 2019. National action plans against plastic pollution have tended to neglect specific measures to address microplastics[2]Diana et al. 2022. Up until now, the most common regulatory measure has been microbead bans, despite this category of microplastics making up a small fraction of emissions compared to tyre wear, agricultural plastics, plastic pellets, microfibers and paints[3]Boucher & Friot 2017a; Lau et al. 2020; Paruta et al. 2022; Xanthos & Walker 2017. In recent reviews, Diana et al.[4]Diana et al. 2022 and Karasik et al.[5]Karasik et al. 2020 found that policies from higher-income countries were more likely to address microplastics compared to middle- and lower-income countries, suggesting varying capacities to map, monitor and address this problem. Research from the Pacific Islands indicate that lack of access to information and data may be a contributing factor[6]Farrelly et al. 2021. Yet, as this chapter will show, the picture of microplastics policy is changing, as there has been a marked increase in the breadth of measures and policies being developed in the past five years.
The reviewed policies and measures can be clustered into three categories[1]OECD 2021:
This chapter examines current policies and frameworks on microplastics in a rapidly moving policy landscape, as well as different measures that have been taken (see Box 8) to address microplastics pollution. We elaborate on priorities, focus and categories of measures and their relevance for a global agreement.
The review is primarily concerned with existing policies directly addressing microplastics and does not provide a full overview of all possible measures that could be taken to address different sources and pathways of microplastic pollution. We have also excluded policies only related to litter and plastic pollution in general, though such policies have relevance due to the generation of microplastics from plastics in the environment. A range of such overviews already exist, see for instance UNEP’s From Pollution to Solution[1]UNEP 2021a, the FanpLESStic-sea policy review[2]FanpLESStic-sea 2019; The Duke University Plastic Policy Inventory[3]Diana et al. 2022, the Portsmouth University Plastic Policy Centre[4]Global Plastics Policy Centre n.d., and the review by Singapore National University and Cobsea on ASEAN plastic research and regional measures[5]Lyons et al. 2020 and more[6]OWPAP CEARAC 2020.
Measures to address microplastics may cover different dimensions. They may be regulatory, fiscal, educational, voluntary or a combination:
Monitoring of microplastics in the environment is intended to provide data and information on the types of materials found, the major sources of microplastics, changes in fluxes over time, the movement of microplastics in different environments and settings and exposure of ecosystems to microplastic pollution. Coordinated monitoring of microplastics is still in the early stages internationally; yet, whilst limited, these activities are intended to identify sources and set baselines for microplastic in the environment to allow for tracking of changes over time. Monitoring activities across the world utilise varying protocols and methodologies and take place across diverse temporal and spatial scales. This variability makes it challenging to compare data from different datasets. As an effort to enable data comparison, encouraged by agreements from G7 and G20 summits, Japan has been working on harmonisation of monitoring methods and data compilation for ocean surface microplastics and published the Guidelines for Harmonising Ocean Surface Microplastic Monitoring Methods in 2019, updated in 2020[1]Yutaka et al. 2020. In addition, EUROqCHARM, an ongoing research project funded by the European Union, is looking into how monitoring activities can be harmonised (or standardised) to allow for improved comparability across different methods and protocols[2]Macro- & microplastics monitoring - EUROqCHARM project n.d..
Marine, and some freshwater, monitoring activities are typically coordinated through Regional Sea Programmes (e.g. the Northwest Pacific Action Plan[3]NOWPAP CEARAC 2020) and Regional Seas Conventions[4]Through recommendations coming from work under The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR), The Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission (HELCOM) and Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP). Thus, national monitoring activities have been informed by these efforts to develop guidelines and protocols for monitoring and reporting. For instance, The Republic of Korea started its monitoring program in 2012, while China established a monitoring program of microplastics in 2016 with 30 sampling points outside the Chinese coasts[5]Juying Wang et al. 2017. Norway initiated its monitoring program on microplastics in 2021, with nationwide sampling in oceans, lakes and rivers[6]Mikroplast i kystområder, elver og innsjøer (Mikronor) - Miljødirektoratet n.d.. The state of California recently started a four-year monitoring program of microplastics in drinking water[7]California Ocean Protection Council 2022. Malaysia has committed to establish a monitoring program by 2022, under their National Plastic Action Plan[8]Government of Malaysia n.d.. Monitoring activities can also be conducted by other actors such as research institutions, intergovernmental organisations, non-governmental organisations and private companies. To the best of our knowledge, there are at present no examples of countries routinely monitoring the presence of microplastics in terrestrial environments.
Accompanying these monitoring activities is the proliferation of research examining the presence, prevalence, impacts, sources and sinks of microplastic pollution, coupled with an emerging body of literature on microplastic policies and measures. This includes numerous large research consortia funded by global, regional and national research councils that include a microplastic component in their research agendas. As well as national research programmes, such as the Swedish research agenda on microplastics[9]SEPA 2021.
These research efforts are predominantly conducted in and by high-income countries, resulting in an imbalance in the understanding of the dominant sources, sinks and drivers of microplastic pollution. For instance, a recent study found that researchers based in Latin America and the Caribbean only accounted for five percent of the global scientific production on microplastics[10]Orona-Návar et al. 2022. As elaborated in Chapter 3, the rates of release and sources of microplastics vary according to local environmental, economic or social factors; for example, the influence of climate on degradation and fragmentation, the dominant industries present or the behaviours and practices that lead to microplastic releases. Impacts of microplastics on ecosystems may also vary with climate and/or relate to the occurrence of different species. If global policy measures are developed based only on the evidence gathered from countries in the global North, there is a risk that other important sources, pathways and impacts in other climates, ecosystems and socioeconomic contexts will be missed.
The United States of America is making steps towards a greater level of control of microplastics pollution. Measures are in development or being implemented on both the federal and state level.
On the federal level, the US was the first country to implement a ban on microbeads. The Microbead-Free Waters Act of 2015, banned the manufacturing, packaging, and distribution of rinse-off cosmetics containing plastic microbeads, with a stepwise phase-out starting in 2017[1]FDA 2022. The US Environmental Protection Agency is currently conducting a public consultation on a report for the US Congress on Microfiber Pollution. The report contains a draft Federal Plan for 2023-2028 to reduce microfiber pollution[2]US EPA 2022.
On the state level, several states have independently introduced additional bans or restrictions on microbeads in personal care products (e.g. Illinois and Indiana)[3]Plastics Policy Inventory Search | The Nicholas Institute for Energy, Environment & Sustainability n.d.. Whereas California has adopted a state-wide microplastics strategy[4]California Ocean Protection Council 2022. The California microplastics strategy takes a two-pronged approach: 1) Solutions, and 2) Science to inform policy. The Solutions refer to measures that can be implemented immediately. These include measures to eliminate plastic wastes at source, pathways interventions (i.e. filters, interception of road runoff, wastewater treatment), and education and engagement with the public, industries and other bodies. The measures under Science to inform policy address investment in research on monitoring, risks, sources and pathways prioritisation and evaluation of new solutions.
While the global North has a larger research community on microplastics, there are many initiatives and studies being conducted across the world. These are partially driven by commitments under National and Regional Action Plans on plastic pollution to improve the knowledge base on the presence, impact and risks of microplastics in the environment to people and ecosystems[1]See for instance, Chile’s National Action PlanMinisterio del Medio Ambiente 2021, the ASEAN Regional Action Plan on Combating Marine DebrisASEAN Secretariat 2021, the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center’s Action Plan for 2020 to 2030. . On the global level, intergovernmental organisations lead research and review efforts to establish consensus on the risks of microplastics to humans and the environment. Of note is the Science Advice for Policy by European Academies (SAPEA) Evidence Review Report on micro- and nanoplastic pollution[2]SAPEA 2019, which provides a comprehensive review of the current state of knowledge. The FAO has conducted several studies and broad reviews of the scientific evidence related to food and health risks of microplastics highlighting the need to take a balanced approach towards addressing microplastic pollution. While the WHO has looked into drinking water as a pathway for exposure[3]amarro & Costanzo n.d.; A. Lusher et al. 2017; World Health Organization 2022. The OECD published an extensive overview of policies to target microplastic emissions from tyre wear and textiles[4]OECD 2021. UNEP has developed several reports and factsheets on microplastic pollution in different environments[5]United Nations Environment Programme 2021; United Nations Environment Programme (2022). Additionally, international non-governmental organisations such as the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, the Centre for International Environmental Law and the Minderoo Foundation have funded and produced relevant research and reports[6]Boucher & Friot 2017a; CIEL 2022; Minderoo Foundation n.d..
Another emerging field of research on microplastics regard the design, implementation and compliance with policies. Despite 7 years having passed since the introduction of the first national microbead ban, few studies examine the effect of and compliance with the bans. Research on the drivers and barriers to implementation of such bans also remains limited[7]Nøklebye et al. In press; Xanthos & Walker 2017. Though some countries have reported data on effectiveness under the G20 Implementation Framework[8]IGES 2022. This gap is also increasingly being addressed by the establishment of recent centres and policy inventories tracking plastic related policies. Notable examples are The Duke University Plastic Policy Inventory[9]Karasik et al. 2020 and the Portsmouth University Plastic Policy Centre[10]Global Plastics Policy Centre n.d..
As of 2022, the European Union is the only regional body to set a quantitative target for reduction of microplastic pollution.
In 2021, the EU Commission adopted the Zero Pollution Action Plan (ZPAP)[1]Towards Zero Pollution for Air, Water and Soil. . Target 5 under ZPAP states that “By 2030, the EU should reduce by 50% plastic litter at sea and by 30% microplastics released into the environment” compared to the 2016 baseline[2]See Annex 2 for an excerpt of the target and monitoring approach . The target is founded on calculations by the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) which indicated that measures targeting textiles, tyres and plastic pellets, flakes and powders, alongside measures on intentionally added primary microplastics could achieve a 60% reduction by 2038. The ZPAP highlights the ‘zero pollution hierarchy’ as a core approach to address pollution, stating that ”EU environmental policies should be based on the precautionary principle and on the principles that preventive action should be taken, that environmental damage should, as a priority, be rectified at source and that the polluter should pay”[3]Zero Pollution Action Plan 2021.
Similarly, the EU Soil Health Strategy sets out a framework and concrete measures to protect and restore soils and ensure their sustainable use[4]Zero Pollution Action Plan 2021. The document sets objectives to achieve healthy soils by 2050, including the objective of reducing by 30% microplastics released into the soil by 2030. A new Soil Health Law is foreseen by 2023 as an implementation instrument for this strategy. While it is not yet clear how microplastic pollution will be included in the law, it will build on the ongoing work to restrict intentionally used microplastics. It may also set provisions on measures on the unintentional release of microplastics and adopt biodegradability criteria for certain polymers, such as coating agents and agricultural mulching films.
Furthermore, the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD)[5]European Commission 2008 and the four Regional Sea Conventions[6]The four regional seas and dedicated RSCs: Mediterranean Sea (UNEP/MAP), Black Sea (BSC), Baltic Sea (HELCOM) and North-East Atlantic region (OSPAR). are providing frameworks for large-scale actions against marine litter, including micro-litter. It is a policy framework for 23 coastal Member States of EU with sea borders in the four European seas: Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, Baltic Sea and North-East Atlantic region. Monitoring is implemented in all EU member states, yet microlitter (including microplastics) has recently been put forward as a suggested indicator[7] González-Fernández & Hanke 2020. Indicators are being developed to monitor microlitter on coastlines, in surface water layers, on the seabed and ingested by biota. As Member States must develop action plans to achieve targets by 2027, a number of states have started to address microplastics in their MSFD action plans.
Concurrently, the EU has taken several actions to develop interlinked policies to reduce microplastic emissions under the EU Green Deal, ZPAP, the Plastics Strategy and the Circular Economy Action Plan. The EU will also present measures to address microplastic pollution from textiles, tyres and pellet losses by the end of 2022.
Plastic pellets, flakes and powders
The EU Plastics Strategy proposed three measures to prevent losses of pellets, flakes and powders that are yet to be implemented[1]European Commission 2018a; 2018c:
Intentionally added microplastics:
Use-phase and degradation-based secondary microplastics
Proposal for EU REACH restriction of microplastics
polymers that are solid and which either are contained in particles and constitute at least 1 % by weight of those particles, or build a continuous surface coating on particles; where at least 1 % by weight of those particles fulfil either of the following conditions:
Suppliers of polymers for these uses must report on the end uses, generic information of polymers and estimates of the quantities released to the environment for the previous year.
The proposed regulation further sets out information, reporting and labelling requirements for products containing intentionally added microplastics. This includes requirements to manufacturers and industrial downstream users of plastic pellets, flakes and powders to submit information on the uses of these materials each year, information on the identify of polymers used and estimates of quantities released to the environment.
In the ASEAN region, the Bangkok Declaration on Combating Marine Debris and the ASEAN Regional Action Plan on Combating Marine Debris outline initiatives to improve regional cooperation on marine debris issues and improve capacity to address marine plastic pollution through upstream and downstream measures[1]SEAN Secretariat 2021. The ASEAN action plan highlights the limited understanding of microplastics leakages and lack of measures amongst ASEAN Member States to address microplastic pollution. The action plan further emphasises the need to improve knowledge in ASEAN on quantifying and monitoring plastic marine debris; and to contribute to global research efforts to better understand the sources and impact of microplastic. The plan includes a regional study on microplastics scheduled for 2024, which includes four components: 1) baseline regional study on microplastics; 2) stocktaking of existing studies and methods on microplastics and research institutes; 3) analysis of samples from different microplastic-releasing products to identify the rate of release; and 4) identification of main sources of release of microplastic in the environment.
The Arctic Council has noted a growing concern related to increasing levels of microplastics in the Arctic[1]Arctic Council 2017. Both the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program (AMAP) and Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME) address litter and plastics in the Arctic region[2]PAME n.d.-b; n.d.-a. Specifically, AMAP has now put forward recommendations to prioritize monitoring primary indicators for beaches/shorelines, sediments (freshwater and marine), water (freshwater and marine) and seabirds, while secondary recommendations include indicators for air, fish and invertebrates[3]AMAP 2021. Moving forward, PAME will continue working towards developing an implementation plan for the Regional Action Plan on marine Litter in the Arctic (2021-2023). Main activities will include a roadmap for implementation of the Arctic Council’s strategic actions[4]PAME n.d.-b.
The most common approach at the national level to limit microplastic pollution is through downstream measures to reduce mismanagement of wastes[1]Deme et al. 2022; Nielsen et al. 2020. Some examples of upstream sectorial approaches exist. This sub-chapter reviews current policies and measures, in addition to those discussed in the previous section, taken to prevent and address microplastic pollution through specific measures on the four categories of microplastics.
Losses of plastic pellets, flakes and powders take place across the plastic value chain. The emissions may be both acute and diffuse. Diffuse pellet pollution occurs during production, storage, loading and unloading, transportation, conversion, packaging and recycling as smaller quantities of pellets, flakes or powders are lost at various stages. Acute pellet pollution events may be much more visible than the diffuse losses, due to the high volumes of pellets lost over a short period of time. Two notable examples are the TransCarrier accident in the North Sea in 2020[1]Hilde Dolva et al. 2020 and the X-press Pearl spill in 2021[2]“X-Press Pearl” 2021. The X-press Pearl accident alone released 1,680 tonnes of plastic pellets to the waters outside Sri Lanka in 2021[3]UNEP 2021b. Following these two accidents, there is reason to think that diffuse and acute pellet pollution may require differentiated measures.
Pollution by plastic pellets, flakes and powders is largely regulated by policies targeting environmental pollution more broadly. Spills from international shipping (such as the TransCarrier and X-Press Pearl accidents), are regulated by international treaties such as the MARPOL Convention (Annex V) and the London Convention/London Protocol which prohibit pollution from maritime activities. Clean-ups of maritime spills are typically covered by pooled insurance agents (P&I insurers) which may contribute to cover the costs of clean-ups. However, the extent to which the shipping companies are held responsible for clean-up costs and damages varies according to national practices and the willingness of the companies to cooperate[1]Jefferies & Maes 2022; Sri Lanka eyes major compensation case over X-Press Pearl sinking 2022. Following the two accidents, Sri Lanka, with the support of several countries, have proposed to the IMO Sub-Committee on Pollution Prevention and Response to reclassify plastic pellets as hazardous substances according to the IMDG Code[2]Sub-committee on Pollution Prevention and Response 2022a. This change to the code would make it possible to identify containers carrying pellets, flakes or powders, so that they may be stored below deck, thus reducing the risks of spills. In April 2022, the IMO Correspondence Group on Marine Litter from Ships has been assigned the task to evaluate all options, including classification, that could reduce the risk associated with the maritime transport of plastic pellets, flakes and powders. This group is planned to deliver its recommendations to IMO PPR-10 early 2023. Another proposal is to classify plastic pellets as dangerous goods under Annex III of MARPOL, which could improve the labelling, cargo handling, storage and handling on-board ships and reduce accidents resulting in plastic pellets entering the marine environment[3]Sub-committee on Pollution Prevention and Response 2022b.
Beyond preventive measures, measures to address acute plastic may also relate to cooperation and emergency preparedness to mitigate the negative impacts of spills and facilitate clean-up efforts. For instance, Sweden has taken the initiative to examine how to better increase emergency preparedness and response to spills in the Nordic countries following the TransCarrier accident under existing Regional Seas Conventions and Action Plans.
On the national level, diffuse pellet pollution is typically governed by national level legislation on industrial pollution. Some countries have taken additional measures:
The French policy and Spanish efforts reflect increasing momentum for the establishment of binding standards and guidelines to reduce pellet losses in Europe. While in the EU, the Plastics Strategy and a subsequent report proposed a regulation requiring supply-chain accreditation of best practices to prevent pellet losses as a potential measure to address such leakage[5]European Commission 2018a; 2018c; Hann et al. 2018a. OSPAR Recommendation 2021/06[6]See OSPAR Guidelines in support of Recommendation 2021/06 on the reduction of plastic pellet loss into the marine environment (OSPAR Agreement: 2021-06) for more information. calls for the development and implementation of pellet loss prevention standards and minimum requirements, alongside certification schemes for the entire supply chain and the promotion of best practices[7]OSPAR Commission 2021. The accompanying OSPAR guidelines emphasize that policy measures should prioritize prevention of spills at source with a clear hierarchy of measures in standard and certification frameworks: 1) prevention, 2) containment and mitigation, and 3) clean-ups[8]OSPAR Commission 2021.
Operation Clean Sweep (OCS) is a voluntary programme initiated by the American Chemical Council and the US plastic industry association PLASTICS to reduce the losses of plastic pellets, flakes and powders to the environment. It targets all stakeholders along the value chain, including the resin producers, transporters, bulk terminal operators and plastics processors. The programme was initially launched in the US and has been exported several other countries and regions. The design of the programmes varies between countries. The programme is structured around pledges by companies and employees committing to prevent pellet loss. The host organisations of the OCS programmes also conduct awareness raising, trainings and provide guidance materials to support companies and employees in implementing measures.
OCS in Europe has been criticised for primarily involving the producers of plastic pellets and not including the agents involved in handling and transporting these materials, and for lacking compliance and verification mechanism[1]European Commission 2021. In response, the European producer organisations for plastic producers (Plastics Europe) and plastic converters (European Plastics Converters) are developing a European certification scheme. The certification scheme aims at controlling and documenting compliance with commitments to prevent pellet losses and should be ready by the end of 2022[2]Plastics Europe 2022.
The content of the pledges, requirements for reporting, validation and implementation of measures varies between OCS programmes. Whereas the US and European schemes do not require documentation from signatories, the Brazilian iteration of OCS, the Zero Pellet Program – OCS was co-designed by the plastics industry and the Oceanographic Institute of the University of São Paulo[3]Turra 2022. In this iteration, signatories must comply with a two-year programme:
The Brazilian OCS initiative is thus an intermediary between the more stringent requirements under a certification scheme, and the softer approaches under the present iterations of OCS in the US and Europe.
The reviewed policies that on intentionally added primary microplastics predominantly address microbeads (see 4 for policies reviewed), with some examples of measures addressing rubber infill materials. With regards to other common sources of intentionally added primary microplastics such as polymer-coated fertilisers and plant protection agents and glitter, no specific policies and measures were found beyond the activities being undertaken under the EU[1]See Section 4.2.1 for an extensive discussion of the measures taken under the EU including the proposed EU restriction on synthetic polymer microparticles.
Microbeads were the first microplastic category to achieve widespread attention[2]Xanthos & Walker 2017. Driven by civil society campaigns[3]Our Impact on the Cosmetics Industry n.d., the first policy aiming to remove microbeads in rinse-off cosmetics was introduced in the Netherlands in 2014. The Dutch government opted for a voluntary approach, engaging with industry to phase out microbeads by 2016[4]Beat the Microbead: The Netherlands speak out | Plastic Soup Foundation n.d. . Other countries, such as Australia and Austria, have also opted for voluntary measures to phase out the use of microbeads[5]Arroyo Schnell et al. 2017; Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment 2021.
Indeed, the groundwork laid down through work with industry may have reduced the resistance faced by other governments that chose to implement bans later on. For instance, in 2015, the industry association Cosmetics Europe called for the voluntary elimination of microbeads in rinse-off cosmetics by 2020 amongst its members. By 2018, the members reported having phased out more than 97% of use[6]Cosmetics Europe 2018.
Since 2015, bans on certain uses of microbeads have been implemented in countries in Asia-Pacific, Europe and North America (see 4). The initial bans were typically limited to the import, manufacture and sale of microbeads in rinse-off cosmetics. Over time, more expansive regulations have been put in place, such as restricting microbeads in detergents (China; South Korea) and industrial cleaning products (Sweden). Furthermore, in 2022, China has introduced additional legislation to define responsibilities for ensuring compliance. Under the proposed EU REACH Restriction for synthetic polymer microparticles, other uses of microbeads would also be included.
Artificial turf (rubber) granulates are estimated to be amongst the largest sources of microplastics in some Northern countries where artificial turf sport pitches are common[1]MEPEX 2021. In Europe alone, an estimated 50,000 artificial turf pitches are installed[2]Hann et al. 2018b. With an estimated 3% loss rate annually, the EU Commission has proposed a phase-out of the placing on the market on rubber infill materials for artificial pitches under the EU REACH restriction[3] ECHA 2019a; Hann et al. 2018b. In the meanwhile, Norway has amended the national pollution regulation to include requirements to the design, operations and maintenance of artificial turf sport pitches, as well as the management of snow from sport pitches (which acts as a vector for transmitting granulate to waterways)[4]Gummigranulat fra kunstgressbaner - Miljødirektoratet n.d.. The regulation also includes requirements on informing users of best practices, and that any new pitches must consider using alternative infill materials. Other measures include an EU CEN technical report (UNE CEN/TR 17519:2021 IN) on reducing losses[5]European Standards n.d., OSPAR Action 5.2 to develop best practices and guidelines, and planned HELCOM guidelines on establishment and operation of artificial turfs to prevent plastic losses[6]HELCOM 2021; OSPAR 2022. Finland has established guidelines and best practices for the management and design of artificial turf pitches[7] Finnish Ministry of Environment 2021, while the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency has produced guidelines for regulatory authorities giving information on what requirements they can place on the operators of artificial turf pitches[8]Vägledning om konstgräsplaner n.d..
Measures and policies addressing use-phase secondary microplastics primarily target tyre and road wear and microfibres from textiles. Measures to reduce the microplastic generation from agricultural plastics during use are limited, beyond an FAO initiative to develop a Voluntary International Code of Conduct for Agricultural Plastics by 2024 and actions taken in China to control mulching films[1]FAO 2021; MEE 2020. Measures and policies targeting other prominent sources such as paints and paint fragments were not identified in this review.
Tyre and road wear is estimated to be one of the largest discrete sources of microplastics to the environment globally[2]PEW Charitable Trusts & SystemIQ 2020. Several potential reduction and mitigation measures have been identified[3]European Commission 2019b; European TRWP Platform 2019; OECD 2021. These address tyre design (standards and labelling requirements, voluntary commitments, best available techniques, bans on tyre pins); traffic rules and road design (stricter speed limits and reduced road traffic); awareness-raising and education (eco-driving); car design (weight, acceleration rate); behaviour change (incentivising public transport, driving bans, autonomous driving); and treatment of emissions (filter systems and sustainable drainage systems, street cleaning, capture infrastructure)[4]OECD 2021; Trudsø et al. 2022.
Measures addressing tyre and road wear are still in the early stages of development, prioritising research and development to lay the foundations for regulation. The EU has proposed the development of a standard to measure tyre abrasion as a first step to introduce legal limits for tyre abrasion and labelling of tyre wear propensity[5]Regulation (EU) 2020/740 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 May 2020 on the labelling of tyres with respect to fuel efficiency and other parameters, amending Regulation (EU) 2017/1369 and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1222/2009 (Text with EEA relevance) 2020. Finland is planning to conduct studies on how microplastic emissions can be reduced through measures addressing tyres, cars and awareness-raising and public engagement[6]Finnish Ministry of Environment 2021. In Norway, the current focus is to establish knowledge on the national levels of tyre and road wear emissions and evaluate the efficiency of already established measures for road pollution[7]Government of Norway 2022: 75.
Alongside these measures, the industry has taken voluntary actions. The European Tyre and Technical Organisation facilitated the Tyre and Road Wear Particles Platform, a multi-stakeholder platform. The Platform’s Way Forward Report outlines possible mitigation measures identified during meetings of the initiative and recommendations for continued collaboration[8]European TRWP Platform 2019. Through the Tyre Industry Project, several members are contributing to projects to further understand the potential environmental and human impacts of tyre and road wear particles.
Synthetic textiles are the second largest known significant source of use-phase secondary microplastics. Beyond measures by the EU addressed in the previous sub-chapter, countries have opted for different strategies. France and Canada are implementing regulations requiring the installation of filters in new washing machines, whilst Australia is implementing a voluntary scheme to phase-in such filters by 2030[1]Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment 2021; LOI n° 2021-1104 du 22 août 2021 portant lutte contre le dérèglement climatique et renforcement de la résilience face à ses effets (1) 2021; Legislative Assembly of Ontario n.d.. These strategies prioritise the reduction and capture of losses, and no measures were identified aiming to prevent or reduce the use of materials that contribute to microplastic pollution from textiles. Other suggested measures address pre-washing of textiles, emission limits during production, limits to microfibre shedding and EPR-schemes for textiles[2]OECD 2021.
The US EPA has drafted a Federal Plan to Reduce Microfiber Pollution[3]US EPA 2022. The proposed plan targets five goals: (1) Conduct, fund, and support research to address the most critical research needs related to microfiber pollution, (2) Prevent and reduce microfiber pollution from textiles and other sources from entering the natural environment, (3) Capture microfibers in major microfiber pollution pathways, (4) Minimize toxicological hazards associated with microfiber pollution, and (5) Coordinate and share microfiber pollution accomplishments, best practices and science. The plan takes a broad approach to microfibres, addressing textiles, fabrics, personal care products (face masks, tissues), cigarettes and fishing gear.
Private sector initiatives have proliferated, including innovations in product design to create new materials[4]NOWPAP CEARAC 2020 and voluntary commitments and activities[5]Ocean Wise Microfibre Partnership n.d.; The Microfibre Consortium n.d.. The EU Cross Industry Agreement (CIA) is an effort to coordinate industry action. The five industry associations organised under CIA committed to support finding effective and economically feasible solutions by[6]“Cross Industry Agreement” n.d.:
Simultaneously, the Microfibre 2030 Commitment and Roadmap, another industry initiative, aims to have established a rating system for rating microfibre losses from textiles by 2025. The rating system will be based on test data of microfibre releases from signatories in a central data portal, with tests following a standardised protocol[7] The Microfiber Consortium 2021.
Measures to address degradation-based secondary microplastics typically aim to:
These kind of measures are by far the most common form of policies relevant for microplastics[1]NOWPAP CEARAC 2020. While this report has dedicated most of the space to policies addressing other forms of microplastics, the importance of addressing degradation-based secondary microplastics should not be underestimated, as this is likely to be the largest source of microplastics in the environment in large parts of the world due to insufficient waste management and wastewater treatment systems[2]Mitrano & Wohlleben 2020. The following section provides a broad overview of the types of measures and some key sources and pathways of degradation-based secondary microplastics.
Plastic products at high risk of littering: Several countries have implemented policies targeting commonly littered items[1]Diana et al. 2022. The EU single-use plastics directive targets plastic products most commonly found on European beaches. It includes bans on certain products, as well as labelling requirements for single-use products containing plastics (such as cups, cigarettes and sanitary products), and extended producer responsibility schemes to hold the producers responsible for pollution generated. In many countries across the world, commonly littered plastic products such as plastic bags, takeout containers, straws, cutlery and cups have been banned[2]Xanthos & Walker 2017. Additionally, some countries have implemented policies regulating the thickness of plastic bags, banning thinner materials which are more likely to tear and degrade to microplastic particles than thicker materials (e.g. Philippines[3]Galarpe et al. 2021, India[4]Government of India 2021).
Oxo-degradable plastics are plastic products containing additives which speed up the fragmentation of the products. However, contrary to some biodegradable plastics (see Box 6, page 29), there is no evidence of the full degradation of oxo-degradable plastics[1]European Commission 2018b. These materials are thus producing microplastics by design. The additives also make these materials unsuitable for recycling. Therefore, the EU and several other countries have banned all oxo-degradable products[2]Directive (EU) 2019/904 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 June 2019 on the reduction of the impact of certain plastic products on the environment..
Expanded and extruded polystyrene (EPS/XPS) are porous and lightweight foamed plastic materials commonly used for packaging, insulation and for flotation devices in fisheries and aquaculture[1]Cheng n.d.; Huntington 2019; Lassen et al. n.d.. Unfortunately, the qualities of EPS/XPS qualities make these materials highly susceptible to degradation in the environment, resulting in microplastics pollution when exposed to the elements[2]Lassen et al. n.d.. At present, regulatory measures targeting EPS/XPS primarily address takeout containers due to the high risk of littering[3]E.g. the ASEAN Action PlanASEAN Secretariat 2021, EU Single Use Plastics DirectiveEuropean Union 2019, India Waste Management RulesGovernment of India 2021. . The HELCOM Revised Action Plan on Marine Litter includes an action to encourage the development and use of buoys, floats and docks that do not release EPS, with the aim to phase out the use of those containing unprotected expanded polystyrene and other problematic materials[4]HELCOM 2021. Meanwhile, OSPAR has committed to reduce the impact of EPS in the marine environment drawing on the concluded research project, OceanWise[5]OceanWise n.d.; OSPAR 2022. Other research activities are ongoing to identify alternatives and best practices[6]“Hong Kong looks for alternative to polystyrene fish boxes” 2017.
Product design standards and use guidelines can be applied for products that contribute to the generation of microplastics during and after use. Agricultural mulching films are likely one of the largest sources of microplastics to soils globally[1]UNEP 2022, while the use and degradation of fishing ropes and nets used in fisheries and aquaculture contribute to marine microplastic pollution. Proposed measures to address these sources include strengthening design standards and guidelines to make products more resistant to shedding and tearing or switching to substitutes. Finland has in the Plastic Action Plan included a commitment to identify measures to reduce microplastics from agricultural plastics by 2023[2]Finnish Ministry of Environment 2022. The EU has introduced measures on fishing gear under the Single-Use Plastics Directive, including encouraging the European standardisation organisations to develop harmonised standards relating to the circular design of fishing gear to encourage re-use and facilitate recyclability[3]European Union 2019: 094.
Improved waste management and collection systems can contribute to reduce the generation of degradation-based secondary microplastics. Measures may address investment in waste management systems and efforts to divert waste from landfills for recycling or reuse. Efforts may target both household level source segregation and recycling, but also sector specific measures such as collection and return schemes targeting known sources such as agricultural plastics or fisheries related waste[1]PAME n.d.-b. Specific measures have also been planned or implemented targeting more specific waste streams such as fiberglass boats and waste tyres[2]Karasik et al. 2020; MDir 2020.
Incineration ash is a by-product of the incineration of plastics and other wastes. This ash may contain microplastic residues, alongside other hazardous substances[1]Yang et al. 2021. Some countries have therefore prohibited the disposal or release of incinerated plastic ash into the marine environment[2]Karasik et al. 2020.
Wastewater treatment and sewage sludge constitute other pathways for microplastics to the environment. WWTPs have been found to remove progressively higher ratios of microplastics according to increasing levels of treatment (up to 99% with tertiary treatment[1]Sun et al. 2019). However, the high costs of wastewater treatment infrastructure mean that this is not a short-term solution in many parts of the world. Additionally, the removed microplastics are transferred to sludge generated in WWTPs. In several countries, such as Australia, the EU, the UK and North America, 40–75 per cent of biosolids generated from wastewater sludge are used as fertiliser or soil conditioner[2]Okoffo et al. 2021. This thus makes up a significant source of microplastics to agricultural soils in these regions[3]A. L. Lusher et al. 2020.
Environment authorities can set limits to permissible discharges of pollutants from WWTPs. Some have therefore started to develop such limits to the allowed discharge of microplastics from WWTP. Finland has a target to filter out 98% of microplastics from wastewaters according to the MSFD implementation plan for 2022–2027[4]Finnish Ministry of Environment 2022. While the EU is considering including such limits under the EU Urban Waste Water Directive. Norway has proposed limits under the EU Fertiliser Directive to the amount of impurities (including plastics) allowed in sludge that is to be used as fertiliser[5]Government of Norway 2021. However, a key limitation is the lack of standardised monitoring methods for measuring the concentrations of microplastics in wastewaters and biosolids[6]European Commission 2019a.
Mechanical recycling facilities can contribute to the release of microplastics to the environment from the entire process, from collection and sorting, to washing, dedusting, grinding and shredding processes. The shredded material is fed into the extruder, where it is transformed into pellets. Losses are common also in this part of the process. In formal facilities this could be addressed through imposing and enforcing regulations on preventive measures, waste management and releases to wastewater from such facilities, alongside regulations on labour health stipulating the right to a clean and safe working environment. However, informal recycling facilities are unlikely to have facilities necessary to prevent the release of microplastics (including plastic dust) to soils, water and air. These informal businesses do not always respond well to regulatory pressure, hence there are large challenges with implementation, corruption and enforcement.
Clean-up activities targeting plastic waste in the environment is a final form of activities to contribute to reduce emissions of microplastics. As waste is exposed to sun, wind and water it can continue to degrade. Clean ups are organised by governments, non-governmental organisations, and enterprises to remove wastes, and is in some cases financed through extended producer responsibility schemes[1]Handelens Miljøfond - Norges største private miljøfond! n.d.. Clean up activities can also contribute to monitoring and mapping of microplastic pollution through citizen science initiatives[2]Pellets overboard – experiences from a plastics discharge n.d..
Policies addressing microplastics have evolved over the past five years, moving from the knowledge-generation phase in some countries, to the formulation and implementation of specific policies and measures addressing key sources of microplastics pollution. These developments reflect the importance of the Zero Pollution Hierarchy, prioritizing upstream prevention and mitigation at source and the polluter pays principle, due to the complexities of addressing and cleaning up microplastic pollution after the event.
As the review shows, in addition to increasing public pressure and political will, research on microplastics appears to have reached a critical mass, spurring the development of measures to address sources of microplastic pollution across the plastics product lifecycle (from reduction measures, to pellet management, product design, wastewater management and waste treatment). Though many countries still primarily resort to promoting research, these research efforts are increasingly targeted towards specific sources and accompanying source-specific measures.
Indeed, a key issue for policy formulation is lack of data on important sources and emissions. Establishing these baselines is crucial for policymakers to identify the key discrete sources in order to target and justify measures. For instance, while rubber infill materials were found to be an important source in Northern Europe, this is less likely to be an issue in tropical climates where artificial sports pitches are uncommon. A key lesson from the review is thus the value of source inventories or mapping to guide policy. Such a source inventory need not spring from extensive and elaborate monitoring programmes, but may be guided by existing monitoring efforts, knowledge and data from international monitoring regimes, coupled with information on socioeconomic determinants and key industries in the countries in question. Several countries are planning to develop inventories or map key sources, such as Chile, Malaysia and on the region level in the ASEAN, as well as the state of California[1]ASEAN Secretariat 2021; California Ocean Protection Council 2022; Government of Malaysia n.d.; Ministerio del Medio Ambiente 2021.
The development of policies is still in its infancy: several prominent sources, such as microfibres, tyres, paints and agricultural plastics, are largely unregulated with regards to microplastic emissions. Additionally, many of the measures aiming to address key sources such as microfibres and tyre and road wear discussed in this chapter are still at the proposal stage and have not been implemented. Most measures are also voluntary recommendations and not binding. We do therefore not have information on the effect and efficacy of potential measures, nor how to ensure compliance. Still, recent developments are promising, as they display a clear momentum and willingness to act.
The lack of binding measures on many of these sources can be attributed to the issue of substitutability and technological complexity. Microbeads in rinse-off cosmetics can be substituted with natural materials, making it simpler to phase-out use. It is harder to find acceptable substitutes with the same properties for other uses and sources of microplastics, such as agricultural coatings, synthetic fabrics and tyres, as well as prominent sources of secondary degradation-based microplastics such as fishing gear and agricultural plastics. Additionally, issues of technological feasibility are prominent, particularly with regards to developing protocols and standards for measuring rates of microplastic generation, tyre abrasion, microfiber losses and other measures to prevent unintentional losses.
Working with and nudging industry in establishing best practices, guidelines and standards is key to reduce microplastic emissions. As seen in the case of microbeads, the willingness of industry to adapt and change formulations, has contributed to show how it is feasible to phase-out microbeads. Similarly, the industry-led initiative OCS has been highly important in increasing awareness of pellet pollution across and within the plastic supply chain, and the value of the initiative is reflected in how subsequent standards and guidelines are building on OCS guidelines and measures. Cooperating with industry to develop new solutions and measures to other key sources of microplastics is thus crucial to ensure the acceptability and uptake of measures, as well as to reduce the negative consequences and trade-offs that may result from efforts to reduce microplastic pollution.
There are significant geographical disparities in the extent to which microplastic policies are developed and implemented. The EU is a driving force, developing an extensive web of interlinked measures addressing various products and industrial sectors under a suite of regulations, directives and strategies. Meanwhile, this review has found no policies and measures on the African continent specifically addressing microplastics, and only a few from the Asia-Pacific, Latin America and the Caribbean. This could possibly be explained by the focus on English literature and information sources. Furthermore, it is important to note that the lack of information does not translate to inaction in these regions. As emphasised throughout the report, microplastic pollution will need to be managed through complimentary measures to reduce plastic use and consumption and improve waste management as well as measures addressing discrete sources of microplastics.
Finally, policies on microplastics must be seen in relation to macrotrends around climate mitigation, biodiversity loss, and chemical pollution. As this chapter has shown, addressing microplastics without systemic changes to reduce consumption and production of plastic products, eliminating non-essential uses and establishing more sustainable transportation patterns will prove expensive and technically challenging. In accordance with the waste hierarchy, reducing microplastic emissions is far more targeted, cost-effective, and feasible than filters and clean-up efforts.
Regulatory lessons may be drawn from existing multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) when considering how to address microplastics under a global agreement to end plastic pollution. As described in Chapter 3.1, microplastics share several features with hazardous substances. Hence, the global treaties commonly referred to as ‘the chemical and waste cluster’ may be particularly relevant for the design of a plastic treaty. The cluster includes the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, the Minamata Convention on Mercury, Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade and the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants[1]More information about these treaties can be found on their respective webpages: www.mercuryconvention.org/ and www.brsmeas.org/. Alongside the Montreal Protocol, the four treaties form an international control framework that embeds the management and restriction of select chemicals and wastes throughout their life cycles[2]UNEP 2019. For the present report, we focus on the relevant operational provisions, i.e., the control measures set up to meet the overall objectives of the respective conventions.
The Basel Convention
The Basel Convention entered into force in 1992 and aims to protect human health and the environment against the adverse effects resulting from the generation, transboundary movement and management of hazardous wastes and other was|tes.[3]The convention does specifically not regulate radioactive waste and ship breaking that are controlled by other international frameworks. The convention was set up to prevent or minimize the generation of waste at source and enhance the environmentally sound management (ESM) and disposal of such waste. The convention specifically regulates which types of waste are allowed or not allowed to be transported; from and to which States; and under which circumstances, applying Prior Informed Consent (PIC) approach. Shipments without PIC are illegal under the convention. A distinct feature of the Basel Convention is that it expects Parties to minimise the quantities that are moved across borders and to treat and dispose of wastes as close as possible to where they are generated.
In 2019, the Basel Convention was amended with the so-called ‘plastic waste amendments’. The amendments ensure that specific categories of plastic waste are subject to the Convention’s provisions on PIC. With this addition, the convention regulates the transboundary movement of ‘dirty’ plastic waste and mixtures, i.e., plastic waste that contains hazardous substances or additives or that are otherwise contaminated. The amendment also clarifies the scope for transboundary shipments of several types of plastic waste that are not subject to PIC procedures, such as wastes destined for recycling and ESM.
The Minamata Convention
The Minamata Convention entered into force in 2017 and was set up to manage and control mercury throughout its entire lifecycle, from cradle (extraction) to grave (waste). Its operational provisions embed control of supply (extraction and recycling), trade, use in products and industrial processes, use in artisanal and small-scale gold mining (considerable social implications), emissions to air, releases to land and water, storage of mercury stocks, waste and contaminated sites. The treaty consists of a suite of different measures, including soft and voluntary measures, as well as more firm control measures such as bans on products and defined emission control targets.
The Rotterdam Convention
The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade entered into force in 2004 and regulates the international trade and environmentally sound use of specific hazardous chemicals. The treaty evaluates and lists pesticides and industrial chemicals that has been banned or restricted by Parties and notified for inclusion in a legally binding PIC procedure. The Convention may subsequently decide to allow or not allow import, or to allow under specific conditions. Different requirements are placed on different actors, e.g., requiring the exporting party to ensure up-to-date safety data sheets are submitted to the importer and compliance with labelling requirements.
The Stockholm Convention
The Stockholm Convention entered into force in 2004, and currently regulates 31 POPs. The treaty is dynamic in the sense that new candidate POPs are nominated by parties, evaluated by a scientific review committee and regularly added. The POPs are listed in three different annexes, of which A and B concerns intentionally added compounds and C unintentional sources. The chemicals listed in Annex A are prohibited and Parties are obliged to take measures to eliminate the production and use of these chemicals. The POPs listed in Annex B are subject to restrictions. Substances listed in both Annexes come with import restrictions. The unintentional sources listed in Annex C include POPs when formed and released unintentionally from anthropogenic sources and are most commonly controlled through BAT/BEP and corresponding guidance documents developed under the convention.
In the next section we provide an overview of the key operational measures derived from the four treaties of relevance to addressing microplastics under a plastic treaty.
The four MEAs in the chemicals and waste cluster contain a range of different measures and modalities that have been developed to reach the respective objectives of the treaties, drawing a delicate balance between the needs and capacities of its Parties. Many of these elements may have relevance when also addressing microplastics under the new treaty on plastic pollution.
Both the Stockholm and the Minamata Convention makes a distinction between intentional and unintentional sources of release. Intentional sources of release refer to when substances are actively added to a product or applied in a process, and subsequently leak into the environment, e.g., as waste or losses along the product lifecycle. In contrast, an unintentional source of release is however an expected, yet secondary effect of a process or activity that leads to leakage to air, land and water. As we have discussed earlier in the report it makes sense to differentiate between the two, as different control measures would be required to prevent and mitigate the different sources of release.
Intentionally added microplastics, e.g., in toothpaste or soap, could be restricted or banned, providing cost-efficient alternatives are readily available on the market. When the Minamata Convention was negotiated, it was originally suggested to include a ‘negative list’ approach, meaning that all mercury-containing products would be banned, unless specifically exempted under the convention[1]Eriksen & Perrez 2014. However, the outcome of the negotiations was instead a ‘positive list’ approach, banning a handful of the most important products, leaving those not listed legal. The selection of mercury-containing products to be banned was based on a thorough assessment of issues, such as its importance as a pollution source and the availability and feasibility of alternatives.
Indirect and unintentional releases, such as the breakdown of macroplastics, would require different measures, as elaborated in Section 5.3. Filters to capture microfibres from in washing machines, and development and promotion of best practices to avoid losses in recycling processes, are examples of measures applied for unintentional releases.
Restrictions and bans are commonly used to control intentional use of various substances. However, they are rarely used in isolation. Under the Minamata Convention – applying the positive list approach - specific phase out dates were agreed for a set of mercury-containing products, from which the products would be banned internationally.[2]The treaty opened for some flexibility allowing time-limited exemptions. The dates were set a few years in the future, allowed Parties three years to comply. For dental amalgam containing mercury, the negotiating parties could not agree on a concrete date, hence a phase down approach was opted for. The approach includes a list of potential measures that each could contribute to raise awareness, enhance policies, build capacity and contribute to reduce the use of mercury in dental practices. Under the Stockholm Convention, the bans were not directed towards products, as compounds (POPs) and groups of compounds were banned or restricted. A similar distinction could be relevant for microplastics. A plastic product regulation, banning problematic products such as wash-off cosmetics containing intentionally added microplastics could be implemented using a phase out or phase down approach. Or, like the Stockholm Convention, phase outs and phase downs could be directed towards specific, problematic types of plastic materials such as oxo-degradable plastics or uses of EPS/XPS.
Bans and restrictions have also been directed towards certain practices. For instance, under the Minamata Convention, a specific date was set for phasing out some practices using mercury, whereas other were subject to a phase down approach, obliging the parties to implement measures to restrict the use of the problematic substances over time. A similar approach could also be relevant for a plastic treaty regulating specific purposes, such as the use of unprotected EPS in the fishery sector, combining different measures to reduce losses from specific sectors with a high risk of leakage.
BAP/BEP are measures typically used to control unintentional emissions and releases. Under the Stockholm Convention, BAT is defined as “the most effective and advanced stage in the development of activities and their methods of operation which indicate the practical suitability of particular techniques for providing in principle the basis for release limitations designed to prevent and, where that is not practicable, generally to reduce releases of chemicals […] and their impact on the environment as a whole” (Article 5.f.(i)). Under the same convention, BEP is defined as “the application of the most appropriate combination of environmental control measures and strategies” (Article 5.f.(v)).
When introducing such measures, it is not uncommon to distinguish between new and existing sources, prescribing more stringent measures on new sources compared to existing sources. Particularly when the management of old sources requires costly investments in abatement technologies and infrastructure. Under the Minamata Convention, new emission sources (e.g., a new industrial plant) are obligated to implement BAT/BEP within five years, whereas for existing sources BAT/BEP was one option of several measures, with a ten-year deadline.
Concerning industrial processes involving microplastics, examples of BAT/BEP could be closed loop production systems carefully controlling all outlets (e.g., wastewater, air emissions, waste fractions, etc.) from plants; specific requirements and practices on interim storage and shipment; and listings of worst practices. BAT/BEP guidance documents, based on state-of-the-art knowledge, can be developed during the INC process and adopted at the first Conference of the Parties (COP).
Acknowledging the presence of scientific gaps and the expectation of scientific development, treaties are commonly designed as dynamic instruments, that may be developed and amended over time. Both the Rotterdam and Stockholm Convention opens for adding new substances, whereas the Minamata Convention opens for adding new products and processes involving mercury. Several of the conventions have review mechanisms that direct Parties to evaluate the chosen measures and strategies. Both the Rotterdam and the Stockholm Convention has scientific review committees to evaluate the nomination of new substances, whereas under the Minamata Convention, new products and processes are proposed by any Party and evaluated by the COP itself. It should be noted that the scientific review committees under the Stockholm and Rotterdam convention consist of government nominated experts, adopted by the COP.
As outlined in Chapter 3, there are scientific unknowns and uncertainties related to microplastic pollution and impacts. The uncertainties indicate the need for a start-then-strengthen approach to address microplastics on the global level. This could entail starting with microplastic sources that are well documented and for which mitigation technologies and substitutes exist, and follow-up with further research and monitoring to add new sources and pathways in the future. This discussion also relates to the application of the precautionary principle. Negotiators will have to decide upon the degree of precaution, e.g., what degree of uncertainty is acceptable and what degree of risk warrant action.
A scientific review committee could be warranted also under the new global plastic treaty, as future scientific progress may prove new products, processes or practices problematic, hazardous to human health or environment or of emerging concern[3]The distinction between a scientific panel on chemical, waste and pollution, as agreed to be developed at UNEA 5.2, and a scientific review committee, is that the former normally consists of scientists and is a body existing independent of the convention it supports with scientific knowledge. Whereas the latter is an expert body, normally consisting of government nominated experts, mandated to assess the existing scientific knowledge to consider the need for amending the treaty. . For those plastic products or microplastics where no sound alternatives exist, the committee may regularly reassess the availability and feasibility of alternatives and phase-outs of products or practices. A benefit of scientific review committees is that they may increase the credibility and legitimacy of measures. Such a committee should not be exchanged with the parallel development of a science panel on chemicals, waste and pollution, that is expected to be set up as an independent scientific panel with the mandate to compile, assess and synthesise scientific knowledge for the purpose of international management and regulation.
Plastic pellets, flakes and powders form the feedstock for new plastic products. There is a risk for spills and pollution when these materials are stored in insecure or inappropriate locations. Drawing on the experiences under the Stockholm Con|ven|tion, a first step to manage stockpiles and storage (interim or long-term) would be to identify such sites. Secondly, specific requirements could be set to manage such sites, potentially including environmentally sound management, BAT/BEP, storage and disposal requirements, time limitations for storage, registration and more.
Similarly for waste which can result in the generation of degradation-based secondary microplastics, several of the treaties in the chemicals and waste cluster specify requirements for environmentally sound management of waste, definitions for hazardous waste and for what purposes wastes may be recycled, re-claimed or reused (e.g., refused-derived fuel used as fuel in furnaces for brick making). Common guidelines for management of these potential release sources (stockpiles and storage and waste) have been developed under the treaties in the chemical and waste cluster, with strong references to the Basel Convention. These documents have relevance also for the management of microplastic stockpiles, storage and waste; however, they must be adapted to fit the waste fractions associated with plastics and microplastics.
Under the chemical treaties it has been critical to limit the supply of hazardous chemicals, thereby disincentivising further use and strangling illegal trade. Regarding plastic pollution in general, it is also sensible to reduce general consumption levels. Particularly if one considers the tremendous growth in consumption expected within the next decades and that plastics are derived from a non-renewable resource with significant climate impacts[4] Borrelle et al. 2020; CIEL 2019; Ford et al. 2022; Lau et al. 2020. As previously described, plastic material fulfil multiple essential needs in our modern societies and a complete ban on production of virgin plastic is not warranted as there are applications for which no alternatives exist (e.g., medicinal uses). An important element in this regard is the high variability in plastic consumption patterns, in particular between developed and developing countries. To capture such variability a relative reduction target for production of virgin plastic could be anticipated. If implemented, such a measure and associated volume reductions would also impact the presence and drivers of microplastic pollution.
As described in the first part of this chapter, the Basel Convention regulates the transboundary movement of hazardous waste, and since 2019 certain types of plastic waste. This has direct implications for microplastics in two ways: the reduction of plastic waste import significantly reduces the share of dirty plastic waste that earlier tended to be mismanaged or illegally dumped in the recipient country[5]W. Wang et al. 2019. Although, illegal shipments of plastic waste still take place, the Basel Amendment is expected to reduce the amount of mismanaged waste that would otherwise have contributed to degradation-based secondary microplastics[6]Cook & Velis 2022; Interpol 2020. However, plastics intended for recycling in an environmentally sound manner, can still be legally traded without a PIC procedure.
However, the Basel Convention does not regulate plastic raw materials, such as pellets, flakes and powders, or products containing intentionally added microplastics. Nor does it regulate important types of plastic wastes made of polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) or polyethylene terephthalate (PET), that are still allowed to be shipped across international borders in ways considered acceptable under the treaty[7]Cook & Velis 2022. As has been emphasised throughout this report, there is a significant risk for spills and leakage during transport and storage.[8]As previously mentioned, the IMO is considering redefining plastic pellets as a hazardous substance and regulating the transport of pellets at seaSub-committee on Pollution Prevention and Response 2022a. If a plastic treaty is to enforce bans or restrictions on certain products, constituents, polymers or processes, regulating and controlling international trade may become an essential tool.
In addition to having specific control measures on waste, the Stockholm and Minamata Convention are closely aligned with the Basel Convention. A future plastic treaty will also have to align with the Basel Convention, making sure that existing regulatory gaps are shut and that trade between both Parties and non-Parties are regulated adequately.
Drawing from the overview of measures within the chemicals and waste cluster, we here discuss potential measures to reduce microplastics pollution under a global agreement to end plastic pollution (Table 7).
Table 7. Relevant measures for different categories of microplastics (see Box 2 for a description of the categories).
Microplastic category | Typical sources | Relevant measures |
Plastic pellets, flakes and powders (pre-production microplastics) |
|
|
Intentionally added primary microplastics |
|
|
Use-phase secondary microplastics |
|
|
Degradation-based secondary microplastics |
|
|
Most production processes of plastics involve plastic pellets, flakes and powders. This includes recycling processes where plastics are shredded, extruded and made into pellets, before moulding into new products. Hence, any policies to reduce the production of plastic, e.g., through agreed reduction targets, would also imply a reduction in the production and use of pellets, flakes and powders, and subsequently the volumes at risk of being released into the environment.
To reduce or eliminate microplastic pollution arising from this category, control measures should be oriented towards unintentional losses along the supply chain and in production processes. Pellets, flakes and powders are prone to leak into the environment during transport and storage through diffuse leakage, bad environmental practices or accidental spills. Agreeing on common rules to limit or prescribe safe transport and storage would be a sound way of reducing losses from this category. Such efforts to control (interim) storage and transport has precedence in other treaties.
Another point source of pollution from plastic pellets, flakes and powders is pollution directly from production facilities, e.g., through air, wastewater and spills, to the surrounding environment. Various policy measures are available to address these sources. A phase down or phase out approach could be set up to target worst practices associated with significant releases or where the risks and impacts warrant firm action. This could for instance be phase-outs of recycling activities in open facilities. Thus, distinguishing between manufacturing/production processes (products) and raw material production/recycling processes could be justified, considering the different leakage potential from the two.
Intentionally added primary microplastics are added to products to achieve a feature or functionality, or are products in themselves (e.g., glitter, rubber granulate). Some microplastics in this category are intended to remain in the product (e.g., in paints), whilst others are designed for immediate release (e.g., rinse-off cosmetics, industrial abrasives, agricultural fertilizers). In the short or long term, these particles enter the environment, most commonly through wastewater, but also directly to air, soil and sediments.
Relevant control measures for this category could be applied both in the production phase and in the end-of-use phase. Both the Minamata and Stockholm Convention include bans and/or restrictions on the most problematic compounds and products. Since intentionally added primary microplastics are highly prone to end up in the environment, banning or restricting this category directly contribute to reduce environmental pollution. Product design standards and sustainability criteria have been promoted as tools to avoid primary microplastics being intentionally added to products, unless it is strictly needed (i.e., for medical or military purposes)[1]Raubenheimer & Urho 2020; Rognerud et al. 2022.
Essential/non-essential use is another relevant approach in this regard. Non-essential uses or products could be more firmly regulated, e.g., with concrete phase out dates and stringent control measures. Essential use categories could on the other hand be targeted with more flexible reduction measures depending on the context of application, leakage and impact. Criteria for defining essential and non-essential uses could be based on the societal dependence of the type of microplastics/product, the availability and feasibility of alternatives (including cost, technical requirements and restrictions, market access, cultural context and more), and considerations around the human and environmental risk and impact of current use. It should be noted that MEAs commonly include a range of transitionary and flexibility mechanisms to facilitate the different needs of Parties in implementing restrictions and bans, such as time-limited extensions and exempted use. These are diplomatic greasing agents to ensure participation to the treaty, and advocate for the stringency of measures. When considering firm regulatory measures, the availability and feasibility of alternatives are essential information. The latter point also relates to the product design phase, as product developers for instance could be required to avoid developing products with primary microplastics. It should be noted that this may introduce important environmental trade-offs.
Measures to control end-of-life releases from this category could include BAT/BEP approaches to control the releases (e.g., closed-system application, capture and filtering technologies, etc.), advancement of wastewater treatment systems combined with environmentally sound management of sludge, and loss preventive practices.
Plastic products can generate microplastics during use. Microfibres from textiles, tire and brake wear, microplastics from the degradation of aquaculture and fishing gear, agricultural films and paints are all examples of such releases. Reducing the overall consumption of plastic will also reduce the leakage from these sources. However, assuming that plastic will continue to be an important material for a range of purposes in the future, measures will have to be implemented at different stages of the product lifecycle to reduce releases from this category. It may be sensible to distinguish between industrial and consumer related sources, as they will trigger different control measures.
For mercury and POPs, the Minamata and Stockholm conventions prescribe some specific control measures to address unintentional leakages to the environment, while leaving the specific control measures to the discretion of the Parties. Restricting the use of dental mercury amalgam to its encapsulated form is one example, ESM of waste, and implementation of BAT/BEP are all examples of measures that have been promoted under the two conventions to manage releases of mercury and POPs from products and processes.
The design of plastic products may be improved to reduce susceptibility to abrasion and break-down into microplastics – keeping in mind the potential conflict with the demand of longevity and increasing recyclability. Similarly, careful consideration microplastic generation during use by managing factors that contribute to break-down of plastic products, has potential to reduce the release of this category of microplastics. Measures such as microplastic filters in washing machines, lower speed limit and tunnel washing, phase-in of plastic-free alternatives and materials with lower rates of shedding are all examples of measures that have been proposed to reduce emissions. Such measures could be addressed at various levels: consumers can be encouraged to choose more environmentally friendly products (e.g., through labelling systems); governments can establish product standards, minimum service life, and require the integration of filtration technology in washing machines; they can set emission limit on specific industry sources and establish guidelines or limitations for consumer behaviour. When considering alternative replacement materials, a life-cycle assessment would be justified to reduce the risk of problem shifting.
Degradation-based secondary microplastics are the result of larger plastic items breaking down into microplastic pieces, either passively through weathering or actively through mechanical treatment and recycling activities. Although strictly not a category of plastics, waste fractions arising from incomplete incineration[1]Yang et al. 2021, such as ash and waste arising from air pollution capturing devices are included in this discussion.
The chemicals embedded in the treaties discussed in this Chapter are all found in different waste fractions, and measures have been developed accordingly. Mine tailings, catalyst waste and residual pesticides are all examples of waste fractions potentially leaking to the environment. Guidelines for environmentally sound management of hazardous waste and other waste have been developed under the Basel Convention, and both the Stockholm and the Minamata Convention refer to this guideline. ESM of “hazardous wastes or other wastes [some types of plastic waste]” is defined as “means taking all practicable steps to ensure that hazardous wastes or other wastes are managed in a manner which will protect human health and the environment against the adverse effects which may result from such wastes”. In line with the plastic waste amendment, this includes specific types of plastic waste, although exempting a range of plastic waste destined for recycling.
Key measures to reduce releases of this category of microplastics is reducing the overall generation of plastic waste through reducing consumption, increasing circularity and enhancing waste management systems. If not reused or recycled, the waste should be managed properly, in sanitary landfills, controlling potential fires and leakage. These measures will not prevent the break-down of plastics and generation of microplastics, however, it may prevent leakage to the surrounding environment.
The plastic waste that is captured for reuse or recycling may, as described in Chapter 4.3, also be a significant source of microplastic release throughout the entire processing phase, from sorting to pellet production, storage and transport. For inclusion in the treaty, we argue that it would be sensible to distinguish between the recycling process up to production of pellets, since they represent different routes of leakage. Hence, we have included the generation of microplastics during recycling, from collection of plastic to its transformation into pellets, as degradation-based secondary microplastics. Whereas the remaining fate of pellets are dealt with under the “plastic pellets, flakes and powders” category. It should be emphasised that the borders are blurry. Informal enterprises making pellets may also make plastic products. For degradation-based microplastics generated during mechanical plastic recycling, various measures developed under other chemical MEAs would be relevant: BAT/BEP for recycling facilities, including identification of worst practices, requirements for wastewater treatment, physical requirements for plant operation and leakage prevention, air filter technologies, occupational health protective gear, safe reuse of surplus material, closed system operation modality, etc.
As all macroplastics could release microplastics, but not all microplastics stem from macroplastics, microplastics will have to be specifically addressed under a global agreement on plastic pollution. As the INC elaborates on the scope and content of an agreement, ensuring that microplastics are comprehensively addressed in the treaty will be crucial to achieve the ambition to end plastic pollution.
In identifying measures to address microplastics under a global agreement there are several considerations that need to be taken:
With the above considerations in mind, provisions addressing the following could be included under a treaty to address microplastics:
Scope
Objectives and preamble
Definitions
Excluding polymers that occur naturally and are not chemically modified substances.
Plastic pellets, flakes and powders can be regulated through global measures across the value chain to prevent losses.
Intentionally added primary microplastics can be addressed through an essential use approach.
Use-phase secondary microplastics could be addressed through measures addressing reduction, product design, use and maintenance.
Degradation-based secondary microplastics
Microplastic pollution differs from macroplastic pollution in many ways. Throughout the INC process, specific considerations related to microplastics pollution will need to be incorporated. This includes the design of national action plans, establishing source inventories, efforts under scientific and technical cooperation and coordination, capacity building and technical and financial support for monitoring and reporting, especially for less developed countries.
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The United Nations Environment Assembly […]
3. Decides that the intergovernmental negotiating committee is to develop an international legally binding instrument on plastic pollution, including in the marine environment, henceforth referred to as “the instrument”, which could include both binding and voluntary approaches, based on a comprehensive approach that addresses the full life cycle of plastic, taking into account, among other things, the principles of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, as well as national circumstances and capabilities, and including provisions:
4. Also decides that the intergovernmental negotiating committee, in its deliberations on the instrument, is to consider the following:
|
Target 5: By 2030 the EU should reduce by 50% plastic litter at sea and by 30% micro-plastics released into the environment
Basis: Directive on the reduction of the impact of certain plastic products on the environment (EU) 2019/904 (‘Single Use Plastics Directive’) and Marine Strategy Framework Directive 2008/56/EC, Chemicals’ legislation (REACH)
Description:
Plastic litter at sea: Reaching the target of 50% reduction by 2030 would include consumption changes triggered by the sound implementation of existing (mainly the Waste Framework Directive) and new (mainly the Single Use Plastic Directive) EU law. Monitoring beach litter quantities, as required by the Marine Strategy Framework Directive, will be used as a proxy to track progress. Hence, this target will be achieved through the combination of the measures foreseen to reduce plastics use and waste and to foster a cleaner and more circular economy.
Microplastics: According to a 2018 Commission study, a 30% reduction by 2035 of micro-plastic emissions onto surface waters is feasible, provided that a combination of measures to tackle them from pellets, tyres and textiles is implemented. Moreover, the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) analysed that, if appropriate prevention measures under the REACH Regulation are applied to the use of micro-plastics intentionally put in products (e.g. cosmetics, detergents), a 60% reduction in micro-plastic emissions over the next 20 years is feasible too. Thus, a 30% reduction by 2030 is proposed as a realistic ambition, mainly achievable through a sound implementation of the 2020 Circular Economy Action Plan.
Reference year: 2016
Evidence base: Impact Assessment for the Proposal of (now) Directive (EU) 2019/904 (plastic litter) and reports from the European Chemicals Agency (microplastics) as well as underpinning studies for the impact assessment for the Single Use Plastics Directive
Monitoring: The Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) requires regular monitoring of beach litter quantities by the Member States. On this basis the “EU Marine Beach Litter Baselines” was produced. MSFD monitoring (supported by EMODNET) will be included in the Zero Pollution Monitoring and Outlook Framework.
Country | Year | Policy name | Category | Target | Description | Reference |
Argentina | 2020 | Law 27602 | Regulation | Microbeads | Prohibiting of the production, import and marketing of cosmetic products and oral hygiene products for dental use that contain intentionally added plastic microbeads | https://www.argentina.gob.ar/normativa/nacional/ley-27602-345720 |
Australia | 2021 | National Plastic Plan 2021 | Action Plan | Microbeads; Microfibres | Voluntary, industry-led phase-out of microbeads in rinse-off personal care, cosmetic and cleaning products sold in Australia. The Australian Government will work with industry to phase in microfibre filters on all washing machines sold in Australia by 2030 | https://www.agriculture.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/national-plastics-plan-2021.pdf |
Bangladesh | 2019 | Standard specification for face wash | Standard | Microbeads | Bangladesh Standards and Testing Institution (BSTI) published a standard specification for face wash which includes specific requirements that plastic microbeads should be absent in any facewash in Bangladesh. | https://www.bstibds.com/bookre/book_rewrite/23978f72a5aabd893146152ea6b9039ff91a0fc36bb26c27f915b7dc33b362b19ded91fb699755ee1f98bf2efe464a12eb9395b5781b80f39dafbfe7ed8eeea2IBuaDpWp7DKAvR2J-WQUTyHhWfzFAOc5ae2oQoE7mUxo4e0Nl-4XOoaeZumgV4c2lZEWFmSwkMAuaKitP0SHHg~~ |
Canada | 2017 | Microbeads in Toiletries Regulations (SOR/2017-111) | Regulation | Microbeads | The regulation prohibits the manufacture, import, and sale of toiletries used to exfoliate or cleanse that contain plastic microbeads, including non-prescription drugs and natural health products, starting January 1, 2018 with a complete ban as of July 2019. | https://nicholasinstitute.duke.edu/plastics-policies/microbeads-toiletries-regulations-sor2017-111 |
Canada | 2022 | Environmental Protection Amendment Act (Microfiber Filters for Washing Machines), 2022. | Regulation | Microfibres | The Bill amends the Environmental Protection Act to prohibit the sale or offering for sale of washing machines that are not equipped with a specified microfiber filter and to provide for corresponding penalties in case of non-compliance with the requirement. | https://www.ola.org/en/legislative-business/bills/parliament-42/session-2/bill-102 |
Canada (Ontario) | 2015 | Bill 75 Microbead Elimination and Monitoring Act (2015) | Regulation | Microbeads | Prohibits individuals to manufacture microbeads or add microbeads to cosmetics, soaps or similar products. | https://www.ola.org/en/legislative-business/bills/parliament-41/session-1/bill-75 |
China | 2020 | Opinions on Further Strengthening the Control of Plastic Pollution | Regulation | Microbeads | Prohibit the production of daily chemical products containing microbeads by the end of 2020 and in cleaning products by the end of 2022. | https://www.ndrc.gov.cn/xxgk/zcfb/tz/202001/t20200119_1219275.html?code=&state=123 |
China | 2021 | 14th Five Year Plan Plastic Pollution Control Action Plan | Action plan | Microbeads; Research; Monitoring; Recycling; Waste management | Measures on source reduction of plastic pollution (including ban on microbeads), research on monitoring, prevention and control of microplastics in rivers, lakes and seas. General downstream measures on recycling and waste management. | https://www.mee.gov.cn/xxgk2018/xxgk/xxgk10/202109/t20210916_945621.html |
China | 2022 | Notice on Solidly Promoting Plastic Pollution Control | Policy | Microbeads | Lays out responsibilities for ensuring compliance to microbead bans. | https://www.mee.gov.cn/xxgk2018/xxgk/xxgk10/202007/t20200717_789638.html |
China (Taiwan) | 2017 | Restrictions on the Manufacture, Import, and Sale of Personal Care and Cosmetics Products Containing Plastic Microbeads | Regulation | Microbeads | Ban on import, manufacture and sale of microbeads in rinse-off cosmetics | https://nicholasinstitute.duke.edu/plastics-policies/restrictions-manufacture-import-and-sale-personal-care-and-cosmetics-products |
Finland | 2019 | A Plastics Roadmap for Finland | Action plan | General | Action plan laying out broad measures to address plastic pollution, including specific measures to address key sources of microplastics. Measures include: - The main sources of microplastics in agriculture and horticulture are identified and measures are sought to reduce these by over 50 per cent. - A set of research projects is launched and international research cooperation on the harmful impacts of plastic, in particular microplastics, is strengthened. In targeting research, the focus is on the sources of microplastics, exposure to microplastics, permanence and degradability of microplastics in nature, added and accumulated harmful substances, environmental and health impacts and, if necessary, socio-economic perspectives. - Solutions are developed for recovering microplastics in stormwater and wastewater as well as for utilising slurry that contains microplastics. | https://muovitiekartta.fi/userassets/uploads/2019/03/Reduce-and-refuse-recycle-and-replace.-A-Plastics-Roadmap-for-Finland.pdf |
Finland | 2022 | A Plastics Roadmap for Finland 2.0 | Action plan | General | Updated action plan. Measures include: - Identify and adopt measures for reducing microplastic emissions (for example, textiles) - Determine the worst sources of microplastics in agriculture and horticulture and find solutions for their mitigation by 2023. - Identify approaches to reducing the emissions and harmful impacts of microplastics and increase research on them | https://muovitiekartta.fi/userassets/uploads/2022/06/Muovitiekartta-2.0-EN.pdf |
Finland | 2022 | Programme of Measures of the Finnish Marine Strategy 2022–2027 | Action plan | General | The programme of measures to achieve the commitments under the MSFD includes measures to achieve the target of reduced microplastic loads, through targeting shipping, marinas, road transport, agriculture, wastewater and urban drainage, and artificial grass – as well as measures on abandoned glass fibre boats, and marine pollution. | https://julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/163705/YM_2021_31.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |
France | 2016 | Reclaiming Biodiversity, Nature and Landscapes Act No 2016-1087 of 8, Article 124, August 2016 | Regulation | Microbeads | Bans the placing on market of rinse-off cosmetic products for exfoliation or cleaning purposes containing solid plastic particles from 2018 | https://nicholasinstitute.duke.edu/plastics-policies/article-124-law-8-august-2016-reconquest-biodiversity-nature-and-landscapes |
France | 2020 | Law No. 2020-105 of February 10, 2020 relating to the fight against waste and the circular economy | Regulation | Microfibres | Art. 79. In order to reduce the dispersion of plastic microfibers in the environment resulting from laundry washing, from 1 January 2025, new domestic or professional washing machines are fitted with a plastic microfiber filter or any other solution internal or external to the machine. A decree specifies the methods of application of this article. "The Government shall submit to Parliament, before December 31, 2022, a report describing, from the production of the fabric to the washing of the linen, the knowledge of the sources of emissions, the constraints of the sectors and the voluntary measures taken to reduce the emissions of plastic microfibers. | https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/jorf/id/JORFTEXT000043956924 |
France | 2022 | Decree No. 2021-461 of 16 April 2021 on the prevention of losses of industrial plastic pellets into the environment | Regulation | Plastic pellets, flakes and powders | Provides that production, handling (industrial sites using plastic pellets in their production processes) and transport sites (logistics platforms, sea and river ports) of industrial plastic pellets are equipped with equipment and procedures to prevent the loss and leakage of industrial plastic pellets that represent a portion of the microplastics that may end up in the environment. It also provides for the implementation of regular inspections by independent certified bodies. This decree lays down the modalities for the implementation of this provision. | https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/jorf/id/JORFTEXT000043388114 |
Germany | 2012 | Programme of Measures for the MSFD | Policy | Microbeads; Education; | Voluntary commitment to avoid the use of microbeads in cosmetics and cleaning products (incl. blasting media) | https://nicholasinstitute.duke.edu/sites/default/files/plastics-policies/4494_N_2012_Programme_of_Measures.pdf |
Germany | 2018 | Ban of microplastics in soaps, creams, toothpastes. | Regulation | Microbeads | On January 1, 2020, the ban on microplastics came into force. The law prohibits “placing on the market rinse off cosmetic products with an exfoliating or cleansing action containing microplastics”. The penalties range from fines to the stop of production. | https://g20mpl.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/G20MPL-report-2022_2nd-edition_1108.pdf |
Ireland | 2019 | Microbeads (Prohibition) Act 2019 | Regulation | Microbeads | Ban on production and sale of rinse-off cosmetics and household and cleaning products with plastic microbeads | https://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/2019/act/52/enacted/en/print |
Italy | 2018 | General Budget Law 2018: Law no. 205 of 27, Art.1, Sections 543 to 548, December 2017 | Regulation | Microbeads | Ban on the production and marketing of rinse-off cosmetics products (including soaps, creams and toothpastes) containing microplastics | http://www.normattiva.it/eli/id/2017/12/29/17G00222/CONSOLIDATED/20221222 |
Italy | 2021 | Updated Programme of measures according to Article 13 of the MSFD: | Action Plan | Wastewater; Polystyrene | Study, design and creation of a supply chain for fish boxes to facilitate the transition from the use of disposable polystyrene boxes to washable and reusable ones; Design and testing of experimental prototypes for the removal of microplastics by wastewater treatment plants. | https://g20mpl.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/G20MPL-report-2022_2nd-edition_1108.pdf |
Malaysia | 2021 | National Marine Litter Policy and Action Plan 2021–2030 | Action plan | Research; Monitoring; Microbeads | Include measures on research of microplastic impacts, new solutions, standards and awareness raising. Measure include: -By 2026: explore safety mandatory standards for controlling adverse impacts of microplastics on the marine ecosystem and human health concerns - Enhance research/study on marine litter, including plastic and microplastics - Prevent use of microbeads-based products on plastic free islands - By 2028: Ban most common or damaging types of plastic marine litter for example microbeads, fish-egg-sized nurdles. | https://www.kasa.gov.my/resources/alam-sekitar/national-marine-litter-policy |
Mexico City (Mexico) | Mexico City Solid Waste Law | Regulation | Microbeads | Mexico City prohibits the commercialization, distribution and delivery of products that contain intentionally added microplastics (Solid Waste Law), however its application and verification has not been defined. | https://g20mpl.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/G20MPL-report-2022_2nd-edition_1108.pdf | |
New Zealand | 2017 | Waste Minimisation (Microbeads) Regulations 2017, under section 23(1)(b) of the Waste Minimisation Act 2008. | Regulation | Microbeads | Ban on import, manufacture and sale of wash-off products containing microbeads for the following purposes: (i) exfoliation of all or part of a person’s body: (ii) cleaning of all or part of a person’s body: (iii) abrasive cleaning of any area, surface, or thing: (iv) visual appearance of the product; but (b) does not include a medical device or medicine. | https://nicholasinstitute.duke.edu/plastics-policies/waste-minimisation-microbeads-regulations-2017 |
Norway | 2020 | Norwegian Plastics Strategy | Strategy | General | Overarching strategy for Norway, including measures to: - implement the new requirements for artificial turf pitches in the pollution regulation - contribute to and regulate the use of intentionally added microplastics in various products in accordance with forthcoming EU/EEA regulations - take an active role in contributing to knowledge, in addition to being a driving force in the EU’s work on new measures against secondary microplastics - further cooperation on measures to reduce the emissions of plastic pellets under the 2021–2024 initiative, “The Nordic Countries as a driving force in the work against marine litter and plastic pollution” - work to ensure that a global agreement on plastic litter and pollution also addresses the spreading of microplastics - assess the need for regulating maintenance operations which can result in microplastic pollution in marinas, slips and storage places for maintenance of recreational crafts - consider relevant measures nationally and internationally to adhere to OSPAR guidelines against plastic pellets discharge. - work to reduce gaps in knowledge by increasing and sharing knowledge regarding the sources, pathways and impacts of microplastics both nationally and globally - establish requirements, supervision, and guidance for enterprises causing microplastics emissions | https://www.regjeringen.no/contentassets/ccb7238072134e74a23c9eb3d2f4908a/entemanord2022-566.pdfnorwegian-plastics-strategy.pdf |
Norway | 2021 | Chapter 23A of the Regulations relating to pollution control | Regulation | Rubber infill | In March 2021, the Norwegian Government established requirements for the design and operation of sports pitches that use loose microplastic as infill materials. These regulations entered into force on 1 July 2021. | https://www.miljodirektoratet.no/ansvarsomrader/avfall/avfallstyper/gummigranulat-fra-kunstgressbaner/ |
Peru | 2019 | Law N°30884 “Law that Regulates Single-Use Plastic and Disposable Containers or Containers” | Regulation | Polystyrene; Oxo-degradable plastics | The Law, and all other legislation prohibit single-use plastic items including plastic bags, plastic straws, and plastic and expanded polystyrene food and drink containers, and those that contain additives that cause contamination by microplastics or hazardous substances and are not recyclable. | https://g20mpl.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/G20MPL-report-2022_2nd-edition_1108.pdf |
South Korea | 2017 | Regulations on safety standards for cosmetics [Annex 1] {No. 2017-114, Notice, Article 3, Dec. 29, 2017 | Regulation | Microbeads | Ban on sale all cosmetic products containing microplastics under 5mm. | https://g20mpl.org/partners/republicofkorea |
South Korea | 2021 | Regulation on use of micro-bead | Regulation | Microbeads | Ban the use of microbeads in all cleansing agents, detergents and removers manufactured in and outside of South Korea. | https://g20mpl.org/partners/republicofkorea |
Spain | 2022 | Law 7/2022, of April 8, on waste and contaminated soil for a circular economy. | Regulation | Microbeads; Oxo-degradable plastics | The introduction on the market of the following products is prohibited: a) Plastic products mentioned in section B of Annex IV. b) Any plastic product manufactured with oxodegradable plastic. c) Intentionally added plastic microspheres less than 5 millimeters. In relation to the restriction provided for in section c), the provisions of Annex XVII of Regulation (EC) No. 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of December 18 (REACH Regulation) will apply. | https://www.boe.es/buscar/act.php?id=BOE-A-2022-5809 |
Sweden | 2018 | Regulation (2018: 496) on state subsidies to reduce emissions of microplastics to the aquatic environment. | Regulation | General | Public support for 1. investments in technology or in other measures aimed at a) clean surface water from the micro plastics and other impurities, or b) otherwise reduce proliferation of micro plastics and other contaminants via surface water, and 2. feasibility studies and other preparatory measures for such investments. | http://www.fao.org/faolex/results/details/en/c/LEX-FAOC187073 |
Sweden | 2018 | Prohibition in Certain Cases in Connection with the Handling, Import and Export of Chemical Products Ordinance (1998:944), | Regulation | Microbeads; Oxo-degradable plastics | 4 § Ban on import and manufacture of microbeads in rinse-off cosmetics in 2018 and sale of microbeads in rinse-off cosmetics in 2019, as well as ban on oxo-degradable plastics in 2021. | http://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dokument-lagar/dokument/svensk-forfattningssamling/forordning-1998944-om-forbud-mm-i-vissa-fall_sfs-1998-944 |
Thailand | 2020 | Plastic Management Plan B.E. 2561-2573 | Regulation | Microbeads | Ban on the use of plastic microbeads in the import, production and sale of cosmetics | https://g20mpl.org/partners/thailand |
The Netherlands | 2018 | Dutch Policy Programme on Microplastics | Strategy | General | The programme focuses on: Banning deliberate additions of microplastics in products at the European level; Tackling the emissions of microplastics as a consequence of the breakdown of plastic litter; Cutting down on emissions of microplastics as the result of wear and tear on products such as car tyres, paint and clothing; Getting a better understanding of the effects of microplastics in the human body. | https://www.tweedekamer.nl/downloads/document?id=2021D25682 |
United Kingdom (England) | 2017 | The Environmental Protection (Microbeads) (England) Regulations 2017 | Regulation | Microbeads | Ban on the manufacture and supply of rinse-off personal care products containing microbeads. | https://nicholasinstitute.duke.edu/plastics-policies/environmental-protection-microbeads-england-regulations-2017 |
United Kingdom (Scotland) | 2018 | The Environmental Protection (Microbeads) (Scotland) Regulations 2018 | Regulation | Microbeads | Ban on the manufacture and supply of rinse-off personal care products containing microbeads. | https://nicholasinstitute.duke.edu/plastics-policies/environmental-protection-microbeads-scotland-regulations-2018 |
United Kingdom (Wales) | 2018 | Environmental Protection (Microbeads) (Wales) Regulations 2018 (S.I. No. 760 (W. 151) of 2018). | Regulation | Microbeads | Ban on the manufacture and supply of rinse-off personal care products containing microbeads. | https://nicholasinstitute.duke.edu/plastics-policies/environmental-protection-microbeads-wales-regulations-2018-si-no-760-w-151-2018 |
USA | 2015 | Microbead-Free Waters Act | Regulation | Microbeads | Prohibition against sale or distribution of rinse-off cosmetics containing plastic microbeads. Banned the manufacturing of such products from July 2017, and delivery across states by 2018, with a year delay for non-prescription drugs. | https://www.congress.gov/114/plaws/publ114/PLAW-114publ114.pdf |
USA | 2021 | Save our Seas 2.0 Act | Regulation | Microfibres; Wastewater | Enables US Environment Protection Agency to provide grants for improvements to reduce pollution from (amongst others) microfibres and microplastics in drinking water and from wastewater treatment. | https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1982/text |
USA (California) | 2018 | SB 1422: California Safe Drinking Water Act | Policy | General | Decision to define microplastics in drinking water, start a monitoring project, and provide information to constituents. | https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?sectionNum=116376.&lawCode=HSC |
USA (California) | 2018 | SB 1263: Microplastic Materials | Policy | General | Decision and description of how to develop a statewide microplastics strategy. | https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill_id=201720180SB1263 |
USA (California) | 2018 | California Ocean Litter Prevention Strategy | Strategy | General | OPC Goal 2 – Microplastics and Microfibers: Increase understanding of the scale and impact of microplastics and microfibers on the marine environment and develop solutions to address them. Priority objective: Advance research on the extent and impact of microplastics and microfibers in source waters and the ocean, assist in the development of technological solutions to reduce their prevalence in aquatic environments. Objective 4.1 Conduct a comprehensive characterization of microplastics and macrodebris Objective 4.2. Quantify microplastics pathways within watersheds and develop technological solutions | http://www.opc.ca.gov/webmaster/_media_library/2018/06/2018_CA_OceanLitterStrategy.pdf |
USA (California) | 2022 | Statewide Microplastics Strategy | Strategy | General | Two-pronged approach: one track addressing “no-regrets” solutions that can be implemented and one track addressing research and monitoring. | https://www.opc.ca.gov/webmaster/ftptemanord2022-566.pdfagenda_items/20220223/Item_6_Exhibit_A_Statewide_Microplastics_Strategy.pdf |
5. Also recognizes the need for more knowledge and research on the source and fate of microplastics and their impact on biodiversity, marine ecosystems and human health, noting recent knowledge that such particles can be ingested by biota and could be transferred to higher levels in the marine food chain, causing adverse effects;
6. Notes that microplastics may also contribute to the transfer in the marine ecosystems of persistent organic pollutants, other persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic substances and other contaminants which are in or adhere to the particles;
7. Recognizes that microplastics in the marine environment originate from a wide range of sources, including the breakdown of plastic debris in the oceans, industrial emissions and sewage and runoff from the use of products containing microplastics;
14. Requests the Executive Director, in consultation with other relevant institutions and stakeholders, to undertake a study on marine plastic debris and marine microplastics, building on existing work and taking into account the most up-to-date studies and data, focusing on:
17. Also encourages Governments to take comprehensive action to address the marine plastic debris and microplastic issue through, where appropriate, legislation, enforcement of international agreements, provision of adequate reception facilities for ship-generated wastes, improvement of waste management practices and support for beach clean-up activities, as well as information, education and public awareness programmes;
20. Requests the Executive Director to present the study on microplastics for the consideration of the United Nations Environment Assembly at its second session.
17. Acknowledges the findings of the 2016 study of the United Nations Environment Programme on marine plastic debris and microplastics on the most important global sources of and possible measures for avoiding microplastics entering the marine environment, and recognizes that Governments need to further identify the most significant sources, as well as important and cost-effective preventive measures at the national and regional levels; invites Governments to undertake such prioritized measures nationally and through regional and international cooperation and in cooperation with industry, as appropriate, and to share their experiences; and urges the phasing out of the use of primary microplastic particles in products, including, wherever possible, products such as personal care products, industrial abrasives and printing products, and their replacement with organic or mineral non-hazardous compounds;
18. Encourages product manufacturers and others to consider the life cycle environmental impacts of products containing microbeads and compostable polymers, including possible downstream impacts that may compromise the recycling of plastic waste; to eliminate or reduce the use of primary microplastic particles in products, including, wherever possible, products such as personal care products, industrial abrasives and printing products; to ensure that any replacement products are environmentally sound; and to cooperate in the environmentally sound management of such plastic waste;
19. Also encourages the establishment of harmonized international definitions and terminology concerning the size of, and compatible standards and methods for the monitoring and assessment of, marine plastic debris and microplastics, as well as the establishment of and cooperation on cost-effective monitoring, building as far as possible on ongoing related monitoring programmes and considering alternative automated and remote sensing technology where possible and relevant;
20. Underlines that, while research already undertaken provides sufficient evidence of the need for immediate action, more research is needed on marine plastic debris and microplastics, including associated chemicals, and especially on environmental and social impacts – including on human health – and on pathways, fluxes and fate, including fragmentation and degradation rates, in all marine compartments and especially in water bodies and sediment deposits of the coastal and open ocean, as well as on impacts on fisheries, aquaculture and economy; and urges Governments at all levels and Member States in a position to do so to support such research;
3. Encourages all member States, based on best available knowledge of sources and levels of marine litter and microplastics in the environment, to prioritize policies and measures at the appropriate scale to avoid marine litter and microplastics from entering the marine environment;
4. Also encourages all member States and invites other actors, taking into account national conditions:
Noting that microplastics added to products or generated during their life cycle are found along the food chain and that there is therefore concern about their potential to negatively affect human health, including food safety, and that those aspects thus require further examination, […]
1. Calls upon Member States and other actors at the local, national, regional and international levels, including in the private sector, civil society and academia, to address the problem of marine litter and microplastics, prioritizing a whole-life-cycle approach and resource efficiency, building on existing initiatives and instruments, and supported by and grounded in science, international cooperation and multi-stakeholder engagement;
4. Recalls its resolution 2/11 on marine plastic litter and microplastics and invites Member States, in close collaboration with the private sector, to:
Product group | Brief details of use and technical function(s) |
Cosmetic products | Microplastics are used in cosmetic products to provide a variety of functions, e.g., exfoliating/cleansing functions, opacity control, smooth and silky feeling in products and an illuminating effect on the skin. They can be used in lipstick, loose or pressed powders and liquid or thick emulsions with powdery feel. Microplastics may also be used as a carrier for other ingredients. |
Detergents and maintenance products | Microplastics are used in detergents and maintenance products (waxes, polishes and air care products27) to provide a range of functions, including as abrasives, fragrance encapsulations, opacifying agents and anti-foam agents. They can be used e.g. in surface cleaning products, fabric softeners, dishwashing liquids, waxes, polishes and air care products. |
Agricultural and horticulture | Microplastics are used in controlled-release formulations (CRF) for fertilisers and plant protection products (typically as microencapsulation), as fertiliser additives (e.g. anti-caking agents) and as soil conditioners. Similar to microencapsulation, seed coating involves the deposition of polymeric material on seeds such that coated seeds may be considered microplastic particles as they fall below the upper size limit of 5 mm. |
Granular infill material for synthetic sports surfaces | Microplastics are a key component of the latest generation of synthetic sports fields where they are used as infill material. They are polymeric granules usually produced from end-of-life (ELT) tyres or other synthetic elastomers. |
in vitro diagnostic devices | In vitro diagnostic devices (IVDs) are non-invasive tests performed on biological samples (for example blood, urine or tissues). They can be used for human health applications (including medical devices IVDs covered by (EU) 2017/746 (aka IVDR)), but not only: IVDs are also used in research and development (various fields), and in veterinary and pest control applications. Microplastics, often with inorganic (e.g. iron oxide) cores and chemically functionalised surfaces, are ubiquitous as reagents, assays or calibration in IVDs and are essential in all automated IVD tests conducted worldwide. There is no overarching EU Regulation to regulate all types of IVDs. Therefore, in case a legal definition of IVDs would be needed, the Dossier Submitter proposes to define ‘In vitro diagnostic devices’ as ‘reagent, reagent product, calibrator, control material, kit, instrument, apparatus, piece of equipment, whether used alone or in combination, intended by the manufacturer to be used in vitro for the examination of specimens, including blood and tissue donations, derived from living organisms’, which is adapted from the IVD MD definition set in EU Regulation (EU) 2017/746 (aka IVDR). |
Medical devices | Microplastics have various functions in medical devices (MD). Microplastics in medical devices are used as polymeric filters, adsorber and absorber granulates and in ultrasound devices. Microplastics are also frequently used in the manufacturing of IVD reagents and devices (e.g. chromatography columns used to purify antibodies). They are also present in (substance-based) medical devices used by healthcare professionals and consumers to prevent or treat oral, nasal, skin or eye conditions (e.g. toothpaste, denture adhesives, sun protection28 etc). In (substance-based) medical devices, microplastics have similar functions to those reported for cosmetic products: i.e. gel forming agent, emulsifiers, film-forming, thickening agent. Medical devices are regulated by EU Regulation (EU) 2017/745. |
Medicinal products for human and veterinary use | In medicinal products, microplastics are the backbone of many ‘controlled-release’ medicines: in contrast to immediate release (to the stomach), these formulations can deliver drugs with a delay after administration (delayed release), or for a prolonged period of time (extended release), or to a specific target organ in the body (targeted release). Controlled-release mechanisms allow the active substance to be protected from the physiological environment (e.g. enzymes, pH), to control its release at a specific predetermined rate in specific location/organ. In addition, microplastics can be used for their taste masking, film coating, binding, filling and disintegrant function. In medicinal products, microplastics are often classified as excipients, but they can also be used as an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API). |
Food additives | Similarly to the medicinal products use, microplastics are used as authorised food additives in the formulation of food supplements (e.g. vitamins) and ‘food for special medical purposes’ as film-coating, ‘controlled-release’ agent, and to ‘mask/disguise’ unpleasant tastes. Microplastics can also have binding, filling or disintegrant functions. |
Paints, inks and other coatings | Microplastics are an integral part of polymer dispersion binders in water-based paints and coatings, where they are present to coalescence into films (film-forming function). Microplastics are also used as speciality additives in architectural and industrial coatings (wood, plastic, metal). Microplastic additives enhance properties like matting, abrasion resistance, scratch resistance, mark resistance and side sheen control. In addition, they are used to add texture and structure to surfaces. Microplastics are also used in combination with metallic pigments to achieve a sparkle effect by controlling pigment orientation. |
Oil and gas | Microplastics are used as additives in drilling and production chemicals (lubricants, friction reducing agents, antifoam agents, demulsifiers). |
Plastics | Microplastics are used as speciality additives in thermoplastic masterbatches and engineered materials as light diffusion agents, anti ‘blocking’ agents and to introduce surface structure. Pre-production plastic (resin) pellets (also sometimes referred to as ‘nurdles’) that are used as raw materials in extrusion / moulding processes in article production, by nature of their size, are also microplastics. |
Technical ceramics | Microplastics are used as a pore forming additive to achieve the correct size and number of pores in porous ceramics. According to industry stakeholders these materials are combusted as part of the production process. |
Media for abrasive blasting | Plastic granules are used to remove difficult contaminants e.g. paint, plastics, rubber and adhesive from plastic tools and dies etc. The underlying surface is normally not affected by the blasting as the different plastic materials are somewhat softer than those made of minerals or metal. The material of the granules varies depending on the wanted features; they may consist of poly methyl metacrylic polymer, melamine, urea formaldehyde, urea amino polymers or poly amino nylon type. The granulate size typically ranges from 0.15–2.5 mm with a relative density of > 1 000 kg/m3, indicating that particles would not float. |
Adhesives | Intentionally added microplastics can be used as spacers in adhesives and metallic plated microplastic particles can be used in conductive adhesives in electronics. |
3D printing | Polymeric materials are used in Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) printers for consumers. These printers are smaller than industrial ones and can be bought by private consumers to print smaller objects. |
Toners and printing inks | The toner in laser printing is typically made of granulated plastic to make the powder electrostatic. Some printing inks contain microplastics. |
Substance of mixture used as toys or for arts and crafts | Microplastics are reported to be used in toys or for arts and crafts. For example, glitters, certain sequins (that are not articles) and modelling clays. |
Bulk IER for water purification | Professional and consumer uses reported where the IER (Ion Exchange Resins) would be placed on the market in bulk and would not be contained in a closed cartridge or envelop. |
Substance or mixture used for glass sheet transportation | Used between panes of sheet glass for protection during transportation. |
Idun Rognerud, Rachel Hurley, Amy Lusher, Inger Lise Nerland Bråte, Eirik Hovland Steindal
ISBN 978-92-893-7479-8 (PDF)
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http://dx.doi.org/10.6027/temanord2022-566
TemaNord 2022:566
ISSN 0908-6692
© Nordic Council of Ministers 2022
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Published: 5/1/2023
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